What Not to Give Mice

Harmful Foods to Avoid

Processed Human Foods

Sugary Treats and Candies

Sugary treats and candies should be excluded from mouse diets. High‑sugar foods elevate blood glucose rapidly, overwhelming the limited insulin capacity of rodents and precipitating hyperglycemia. Persistent hyperglycemia leads to insulin resistance, impaired glucose tolerance, and accelerated onset of diabetes‑like conditions.

Excessive simple sugars increase caloric density without providing essential nutrients. Mice consuming such foods gain weight disproportionately, develop adiposity, and experience reduced lifespan. Fat accumulation interferes with normal locomotor activity and compromises thermoregulation.

Dental health deteriorates with frequent exposure to sucrose and other fermentable carbohydrates. Acid‑producing oral bacteria proliferate, causing enamel demineralization, cavities, and painful gingival inflammation. Oral discomfort reduces food intake and skews experimental outcomes.

Behavioral patterns shift when sweet foods are readily available. Preference for high‑sugar items reduces motivation to engage with standard chow, distorts reward‑based testing, and creates variability in learning and memory assays.

Recommendations

Offer standard laboratory rodent chow as the sole source of nutrition.
Provide water without added flavorings or sugars.
Use small amounts of natural, low‑sugar fruits (e.g., blueberries) only as occasional enrichment, not as a dietary staple.
Replace candy with nutritionally balanced treats formulated for rodents, containing appropriate protein, fiber, and micronutrients.

Adhering to these guidelines prevents metabolic disorders, dental disease, and experimental confounds, ensuring reliable and humane research with mice.

Salty Snacks and Junk Food

Salty snacks and junk food pose health risks for laboratory and pet mice. Excess sodium can cause dehydration, electrolyte imbalance, and renal strain. Processed foods often contain artificial additives, trans fats, and sugars that disrupt gastrointestinal flora and accelerate obesity.

Veterinary guidelines list the following items as unsuitable for mouse diets:

Potato chips, pretzels, and other high‑sodium snacks
Candy, chocolate, and sugary confections
Fried foods, including fast‑food items and breaded products
Processed meats such as bacon, sausage, and deli slices
Snack bars with high salt or sugar content

Feeding these products may lead to reduced lifespan, impaired reproduction, and abnormal behavior. Replace them with standard rodent chow, fresh vegetables, and controlled protein sources to maintain optimal health.

Fried and Greasy Items

Fried and greasy foods pose serious health risks for laboratory and pet rodents. High fat content overwhelms the mouse’s digestive system, leading to steatorrhea, pancreatic strain, and rapid weight gain. Excessive oil residues impair nutrient absorption and increase the likelihood of hepatic lipidosis, a condition that can be fatal in small mammals.

Fried potatoes (including chips and French fries)
Deep‑fried meat products (bacon, fried chicken, pork rinds)
Breaded and battered snacks (onion rings, fish sticks)
Sweet pastries with high butter content (doughnuts, cinnamon rolls)
Commercial snack foods coated in oil (pretzels, cheese puffs)

These items also attract pests and create unsanitary conditions in cages, compromising experimental integrity and animal welfare. Provide a diet based on commercially formulated rodent pellets, supplemented with fresh vegetables, whole grains, and occasional protein sources such as plain cooked eggs or lean meat, all of which maintain proper caloric balance without the hazards associated with fried, oily foods.

Toxic Plants and Herbs

Common Household Plants

Providing mice with certain common household plants poses a health risk. These species contain compounds that can cause digestive distress, organ failure, or death in rodents.

Dieffenbachia (Dumb Cane) – calcium oxalate crystals irritate the mouth and gastrointestinal tract, leading to swelling and difficulty swallowing.
Philodendron – also rich in calcium oxalate, produces similar oral and stomach irritation.
Peace Lily (Spathiphyllum) – contains oxalic acid; ingestion results in drooling, vomiting, and abdominal pain.
Pothos (Epipremnum aureum) – oxalic acid and other toxins cause oral irritation, excessive salivation, and gastrointestinal upset.
Oleander (Nerium oleander) – cardiac glycosides interfere with heart rhythm, potentially causing arrhythmia and fatal cardiac arrest.
Sago Palm (Cycas revoluta) – cycasin metabolizes into methylazoxymethanol, a potent liver toxin that can lead to hepatic failure.
English Ivy (Hedera helix) – saponins provoke vomiting, abdominal cramps, and diarrhea.
Lily of the Valley (Convallaria majalis) – cardiac glycosides produce similar effects to oleander, threatening cardiac function.

Avoid offering any of these plants to pet mice. Instead, provide safe fiber sources such as timothy hay, plain fresh greens like lettuce or kale, and commercially formulated rodent pellets. Regular monitoring of diet and immediate removal of unknown plant material reduce the likelihood of accidental poisoning.

Outdoor and Wild Plants

Mice should not be offered any outdoor or wild vegetation that contains toxic compounds. Ingestion of such plants can cause liver failure, neurological damage, or death, even in small quantities.

Aconitum (monkshood) – contains aconitine, a potent neurotoxin.
Digitalis (foxglove) – cardiac glycosides disrupt heart rhythm.
Ricinus (castor bean) – ricin damages cellular protein synthesis.
Atropa (belladonna) – tropane alkaloids cause delirium and respiratory collapse.
Solanum (nightshade, bittersweet) – solanine leads to gastrointestinal distress and seizures.
Taxus (yew) – taxine alkaloids produce fatal arrhythmias.
Euphorbia (spurge) – diterpene esters irritate mucous membranes and can be lethal.
Sambucus (elderberry leaves and stems) – cyanogenic glycosides release cyanide.

Safe alternatives include grasses, non‑toxic herbs such as mint or oregano, and commercially prepared rodent feed. Provide fresh water alongside any plant material. Regularly inspect for new growth of hazardous species in outdoor enclosures and remove them promptly.

Dairy Products and Lactose Intolerance

Milk and Cheese

Milk and cheese should be excluded from a mouse’s diet. Mice lack the enzymes required to digest lactose efficiently, leading to gastrointestinal distress such as diarrhea and bloating. The high fat content of many cheeses can quickly cause obesity and hepatic strain in small rodents. Excess calcium from dairy products disrupts the balance of phosphorus, potentially weakening bone development. Dairy also provides a medium for pathogenic bacteria, increasing infection risk.

Key reasons to avoid dairy:

Lactose intolerance → digestive upset
High saturated fat → rapid weight gain
Calcium excess → mineral imbalance
Bacterial proliferation → health hazards

Instead, offer commercially formulated rodent pellets, fresh vegetables, and a limited amount of whole grains. These alternatives supply balanced nutrients without the drawbacks associated with dairy.

Yogurt and Ice Cream

Yogurt and ice cream are inappropriate for mouse diets. Their composition conflicts with the nutritional requirements and physiological tolerance of rodents.

Yogurt contains lactose levels that exceed the limited lactase activity in adult mice, leading to osmotic diarrhea.
The high fat content increases the risk of hepatic steatosis and obesity when consumed regularly.
Live bacterial cultures may disrupt the native gut microbiota, causing dysbiosis and immune stress.
Fermented dairy can develop mold or spoil quickly, introducing mycotoxins into the animal’s environment.

Ice cream presents similar hazards:

Added sugars create rapid spikes in blood glucose, promoting insulin resistance and weight gain.
Elevated fat concentration imposes a metabolic load that mice cannot process efficiently.
Artificial flavorings, stabilizers, and emulsifiers may be toxic or irritate the gastrointestinal tract.
The cold temperature can cause thermal shock, reducing body temperature and impairing normal thermoregulation.

Providing these products compromises health, reduces experimental reliability, and increases veterinary intervention. Avoid offering yogurt or ice cream to mice under any circumstances.

High-Fat Foods

Avocados

Avocados contain persin, a toxin that can cause respiratory distress and cardiac failure in rodents. Even small amounts may trigger vomiting, diarrhea, and dehydration. The high fat content overwhelms the mouse’s digestive system, leading to hepatic lipidosis and weight loss. Additionally, the fruit’s potassium level exceeds the safe range for murine metabolism, risking electrolyte imbalance.

Key risks associated with feeding avocados to mice:

Persin toxicity → respiratory and cardiac symptoms
Excessive fat → liver damage and obesity
Elevated potassium → electrolyte disturbances

Because of these hazards, avocados should never be offered as a treat or dietary supplement to laboratory, pet, or wild mice. Use established rodent feeds that meet nutritional standards and avoid any fruit containing known toxins.

Nuts and Seeds in Excess

Nuts and seeds are energy‑dense foods that can quickly upset the nutritional balance of a mouse’s diet. Their high fat content contributes to rapid weight gain, increases the risk of hepatic lipidosis, and may trigger pancreatitis in small rodents.

Health concerns associated with excessive nut and seed consumption include:

Elevated caloric intake leading to obesity and reduced lifespan.
Presence of mold‑derived toxins such as aflatoxin, which damage liver tissue.
Large or hard seeds that can cause choking or dental injury.
Imbalance of essential nutrients, crowding out the fiber‑rich components of a proper rodent diet.

To keep mice healthy, limit nuts and seeds to occasional treats, not more than 5 % of total daily intake. Choose unsalted, low‑fat varieties and offer them in small, bite‑size pieces. Remove shells and avoid whole almonds, pistachios, or sunflower seeds that exceed the mouse’s jaw capacity. Regularly monitor body condition and adjust portions accordingly.

Foods Causing Digestive Issues

Citrus Fruits

Citrus fruits should be excluded from a mouse’s diet. Their high acidity can irritate the gastrointestinal lining, leading to ulceration or chronic inflammation. Mice lack the enzymatic capacity to neutralize citric acid efficiently, which may cause reduced feed intake and weight loss. Excessive vitamin C from citrus can overwhelm the limited metabolic pathways in rodents, resulting in oxidative stress and potential renal strain. The essential oil compounds limonene and citral, present in peel and juice, exhibit mild toxicity at concentrations commonly encountered in whole fruit consumption.

Key reasons to avoid citrus:

Low pH causing mucosal damage
Inadequate vitamin C utilization leading to metabolic imbalance
Presence of terpene oils with documented irritant effects
Potential for reduced palatability and consequent nutrient deficiency

If a source of vitamin C is required, laboratory‑grade supplements formulated for rodents provide controlled dosages without the adverse effects associated with whole citrus. Substitute safe carbohydrate sources such as plain grains, seeds, or commercially prepared rodent chow to meet energy needs.

Spicy Foods

Spicy foods should be excluded from a mouse’s diet. Capsaicin, the active compound in chili peppers, triggers a strong sensory response in rodents, leading to discomfort and reduced food intake. Laboratory observations show that mice exposed to capsaicin‑containing feed exhibit decreased body weight, altered gastric motility, and heightened stress markers.

Key physiological effects include:

Irritation of oral and gastrointestinal mucosa, causing inflammation and ulceration.
Stimulation of transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) channels, resulting in pain signaling and aversion behavior.
Interference with nutrient absorption, which can compromise growth and immune function.

Research on rodent models confirms that even low concentrations of capsaicin produce measurable changes in feeding patterns and metabolic rate. Consequently, any formulation intended for mouse consumption must avoid ingredients derived from hot peppers, hot sauces, or spices that contain significant capsaicin levels.

Alternative flavor enhancers, such as mild herbs (e.g., parsley, dill) or low‑sodium vegetable extracts, provide palatability without the adverse effects associated with heat‑inducing compounds. Selecting non‑spicy additives ensures stable intake, normal physiological development, and reliable experimental outcomes.

Raw Beans

Raw beans are frequently offered to laboratory and pet mice as a protein source, yet they contain high levels of lectins that remain active in the uncooked state. Phytohemagglutinin, the principal lectin in many beans, binds to intestinal mucosa, disrupts cell membranes, and triggers severe gastrointestinal distress.

The physiological impact on mice includes:

Acute vomiting and diarrhea
Dehydration and rapid weight loss
Hemolysis and anemia
Potential fatality within 24–48 hours after ingestion

These effects stem from the toxin’s resistance to digestion and its ability to provoke inflammatory responses in the gut. Cooking beans at a rolling boil for at least 10 minutes denatures the lectins, rendering them safe for consumption. Consequently, raw beans should never be placed in a mouse’s diet; only fully cooked, cooled beans may be considered, and even then, they should constitute a minor supplement rather than a staple.

Spoiled or Moldy Foods

Contaminated Grains

Contaminated grains pose serious health risks to laboratory and pet mice. Mold growth, mycotoxins, pesticide residues, and bacterial contamination can impair digestion, suppress immune function, and increase mortality rates. Even low‑level exposure may cause liver and kidney damage, reproductive failure, and altered behavior, compromising experimental validity or animal welfare.

Key reasons to exclude contaminated grains:

Mycotoxins such as aflatoxin, ochratoxin, and fumonisin are hepatotoxic and carcinogenic.
Pesticide residues disrupt endocrine signaling and neurodevelopment.
Bacterial spoilage leads to gastrointestinal upset and septic conditions.
Visible mold or foul odor indicates advanced degradation and heightened toxin levels.

If grains appear discolored, damp, clumped, or emit an off‑smell, discard them immediately. Store feed in airtight containers, keep the storage area dry, and rotate stock to prevent prolonged exposure. Regularly inspect bulk supplies for signs of infestation or moisture infiltration.

Safe alternatives include certified rodent chow, freshly milled non‑contaminated grains, and commercially prepared dietary pellets that meet nutritional standards. Providing these foods eliminates the hazards associated with contaminated grain and supports consistent growth, reproduction, and experimental outcomes.

Rotting Fruits and Vegetables

Rotting fruits and vegetables constitute a category of food that should be excluded from a mouse’s diet. Decomposition creates an environment conducive to bacterial proliferation, including Salmonella, E. coli, and Listeria, which can cause severe gastrointestinal distress, septicemia, and rapid mortality in rodents.

Mold growth on spoiled produce releases mycotoxins such as aflatoxin and ochratoxin. Even low concentrations impair liver function, suppress immune response, and increase susceptibility to secondary infections.

Fermentation of sugars in decaying matter produces ethanol and organic acids. Elevated blood‑acid levels lead to metabolic acidosis, while ethanol intoxication results in impaired coordination, reduced feeding, and potential fatality.

Practical considerations:

Discard any fruit or vegetable that shows discoloration, softening, or foul odor.
Store fresh produce in sealed containers; replace it within 24–48 hours.
Clean cages regularly to prevent residual decay from contaminating bedding.

Providing only fresh, nutritionally balanced food eliminates the risk of toxin exposure and supports healthy growth and reproduction in laboratory or pet mice.

Non-Food Items to Keep Away

Household Chemicals

Cleaning Products

Cleaning agents pose serious health risks to laboratory and pet mice. Toxic chemicals can be absorbed through skin, inhaled, or ingested when residues remain on food or bedding. Exposure often leads to respiratory distress, gastrointestinal irritation, or organ failure, compromising experimental validity and animal welfare.

Hazardous product categories include:

Chlorine bleach (sodium hypochlorite) – corrosive, releases chlorine gas; causes mucosal burns.
Ammonia‑based cleaners – irritates nasal passages and lungs; can provoke pulmonary edema.
Alkali detergents (e.g., sodium hydroxide solutions) – strong bases that damage epithelial tissue on contact.
Acidic descalers (e.g., hydrochloric or phosphoric acid) – cause severe burns to oral and gastrointestinal mucosa.
Enzymatic or enzymatic‑based cleaners – contain proteases that may trigger allergic reactions and digestive upset.
Disinfectants containing phenols, quaternary ammonium compounds, or iodine – neurotoxic at low doses; may impair reflexes and coordination.
Solvent‑based degreasers (e.g., acetone, ethanol, isopropanol) – volatile; inhalation leads to central nervous system depression.

Symptoms of exposure commonly appear within minutes to hours: sneezing, coughing, labored breathing, drooling, reduced activity, and watery eyes. Persistent signs include weight loss, diarrhea, and lethargy. Immediate removal of the contaminant, provision of fresh water, and veterinary assessment are required.

Safe alternatives for routine sanitation:

Warm water with mild, non‑ionic surfactants approved for animal facilities.
Diluted hydrogen peroxide (≤3 %) for surface disinfection, applied after thorough rinsing.
Steam cleaning of cages and equipment, eliminating the need for chemical residues.
Commercial rodent‑safe disinfectants formulated without phenols, quaternary ammonium, or strong acids/bases.

Implementing strict cleaning protocols—rinsing all surfaces, allowing complete drying, and verifying the absence of residue—prevents accidental ingestion or inhalation. Regular monitoring of mouse health and environmental conditions ensures that cleaning practices do not compromise the safety of the animals.

Pesticides and Rodenticides

Pesticides and rodenticides pose severe health risks to mice and should never be included in their diet or environment. These chemicals are formulated to disrupt biological systems, leading to rapid physiological failure in rodents. Exposure occurs through ingestion of contaminated feed, inhalation of dust, or dermal contact with treated surfaces.

Key hazards include:

Neurotoxicity: agents such as organophosphates inhibit acetylcholinesterase, causing seizures, paralysis, and death.
Hemorrhagic effects: anticoagulant rodenticides interfere with vitamin K recycling, resulting in uncontrolled bleeding.
Organ damage: carbamates and pyrethroids damage liver and kidney tissues, producing chronic toxicity.
Reproductive impairment: certain insecticides impair fertility, leading to reduced litter sizes.

Legal frameworks in many jurisdictions classify these substances as restricted for domestic animal use. Unauthorized distribution can result in fines, liability for animal suffering, and contamination of research colonies.

Alternative pest‑control strategies suitable for mouse habitats include:

Mechanical exclusion: seal entry points, use trap‑proof containers.
Biological control: introduce predatory insects or safe, species‑specific deterrents.
Environmental management: maintain cleanliness, remove food residues, control humidity.

Implementing these measures eliminates the need for toxic chemicals while preserving mouse welfare and complying with regulatory standards.

Medications and Drugs

Human Pharmaceuticals

Human medicines that are inappropriate for mouse studies fall into several well‑defined categories. Differences in metabolism, receptor affinity, and toxicity thresholds make direct translation of many human‑approved drugs unsafe or scientifically invalid for rodents.

Mice metabolize many compounds through pathways that either accelerate clearance or produce toxic intermediates absent in humans. Consequently, dosing regimens derived from human clinical use often result in lethal overdoses, severe organ damage, or misleading pharmacodynamic outcomes.

Substances to avoid administering to mice include:

Anticoagulants (e.g., warfarin, dabigatran): rapid coagulation disturbances and fatal hemorrhage at doses comparable to human therapy.
Opioid analgesics (e.g., morphine, fentanyl): heightened respiratory depression and profound sedation due to species‑specific opioid receptor sensitivity.
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (e.g., fluoxetine, sertraline): excessive serotonergic activity leading to seizures and hyperthermia.
Chemotherapeutic agents designed for human dosing schedules (e.g., paclitaxel, doxorubicin): disproportionate myelosuppression and cardiotoxicity.
Immunomodulators (e.g., pembrolizumab, nivolumab): lack of cross‑reactivity with murine immune checkpoints, causing unpredictable immune activation or suppression.
High‑dose vitamin A derivatives (e.g., isotretinoin): teratogenic effects and liver toxicity at doses tolerated by humans.
Certain antihypertensives (e.g., ACE inhibitors, angiotensin receptor blockers): profound hypotension and renal failure in rodents.

When a human drug is essential for a study, researchers must employ murine‑specific formulations, adjust dosing based on allometric scaling, or substitute with analogues that share the target mechanism but possess validated safety profiles in mice.

Adhering to these guidelines prevents animal welfare violations, preserves data integrity, and aligns experimental design with regulatory expectations.

Pet Medications

Pet mice are highly sensitive to many drugs formulated for larger animals or humans. Administration of inappropriate medication can cause rapid organ failure, severe gastrointestinal distress, or death. The metabolic pathways in rodents differ markedly from those in dogs, cats, or people, making dosage calculations unreliable without species‑specific data.

Common human and veterinary products that must be excluded from mouse care include:

Acetaminophen (paracetamol) – causes hepatic necrosis even at low doses.
Non‑steroidal anti‑inflammatory drugs such as ibuprofen and naproxen – induce gastric ulceration and renal failure.
Aspirin – interferes with platelet function and can precipitate hemorrhage.
Broad‑spectrum antibiotics not validated for rodents (e.g., penicillin G, ampicillin) – disrupt normal gut flora and may be toxic.
Antihistamines containing diphenhydramine – produce central nervous system depression and respiratory compromise.
Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and tricyclic antidepressants – lead to seizures and cardiac arrhythmias.
Steroid hormones not specifically formulated for mice – cause immunosuppression and metabolic imbalance.

When treatment is necessary, select agents that have been tested in murine models and follow dosages established in peer‑reviewed studies or official veterinary guidelines. Adjustments should be based on body weight (grams), not on standard human or larger‑animal dosing tables.

If a mouse receives an unapproved medication, monitor for signs such as lethargy, tremors, loss of appetite, abnormal breathing, or discoloration of the mucous membranes. Immediate veterinary intervention is required; supportive care may include fluid therapy, activated charcoal, and species‑appropriate antidotes.

Preventive practice involves maintaining an inventory of approved rodent medications, labeling all containers clearly, and training personnel to recognize substances that are contraindicated for mouse patients. This approach minimizes accidental exposure and safeguards the health of pet mice.

Toxic Materials

Heavy Metals

Heavy metals represent a class of elements that pose significant health risks to laboratory mice and should be excluded from their diet, water, and bedding. These elements accumulate in tissues, interfere with enzymatic systems, and can cause acute or chronic toxicity.

Common toxic heavy metals include:

Lead (Pb) – impairs neurological development, reduces weight gain, and induces renal dysfunction.
Cadmium (Cd) – damages kidneys, disrupts calcium metabolism, and suppresses immune responses.
Mercury (Hg) – causes neurodegeneration, oxidative stress, and reproductive failure.
Arsenic (As) – induces skin lesions, carcinogenesis, and cardiovascular abnormalities.
Chromium VI (Cr⁶⁺) – generates DNA damage, impairs liver function, and provokes respiratory irritation.

Sources of contamination often arise from:

Water supplies treated with metal-containing pipes or filters.
Feed contaminated during processing, storage, or handling.
Bedding materials derived from recycled or industrial waste.
Laboratory equipment such as metal cages, cages with painted surfaces, or metal-based disinfectants.

Physiological signs of heavy‑metal exposure in mice may include:

Reduced growth rate and body weight.
Lethargy, tremors, or abnormal gait.
Hair loss, skin discoloration, or ulceration.
Altered blood parameters: anemia, leukopenia, or elevated liver enzymes.

Regulatory guidelines specify maximum allowable concentrations for each metal in rodent chow and drinking water. For example, the United States Pharmacopeia limits lead to 0.1 ppm and cadmium to 0.05 ppm in feed. Compliance with these limits, combined with routine analytical testing, ensures that mice are not exposed to harmful levels of heavy metals.

Plastics and Rubbers

Mice should not be provided with any form of plastic or rubber. These synthetic polymers are not digestible and can cause intestinal blockage if ingested. Chemical additives such as phthalates, BPA, and vulcanizing agents may leach into saliva during chewing, leading to hormonal disruption and organ toxicity.

Non‑food plastics (e.g., acrylic cages, bottle caps) pose choking hazards.
Soft rubber toys can be shredded into small fragments that lodge in the gastrointestinal tract.
Persistent odorants in some polymers deter normal foraging behavior and may induce stress.

Chewing behavior directed at unsuitable polymers often results in dental wear, malocclusion, and excessive wear of the incisors. Exposure to volatile compounds from rubber can irritate respiratory membranes, increasing susceptibility to infections.

Safer options include untreated wood blocks, natural fiber chew toys, and food‑grade cardboard. When enrichment is required, select items certified as non‑toxic, free of plasticizers, and designed specifically for laboratory rodents.

Contaminated Water

Tap Water with Additives

Providing mice with tap water that contains additives poses health risks and can compromise experimental integrity. Additives commonly present in municipal water include:

Chlorine or chloramine, used for disinfection.
Fluoride, added for dental health.
Heavy metals such as lead, copper, or zinc from aging pipelines.
Variable mineral concentrations that affect hardness and conductivity.
pH fluctuations caused by treatment chemicals.

These substances can irritate the respiratory tract, induce gastrointestinal disturbances, and place additional load on renal function. Chronic exposure may alter gut microbiota, affect growth rates, and introduce confounding variables into research data.

For reliable animal care, replace untreated tap water with one of the following:

Dechlorinated water obtained by allowing it to stand for 24 hours or by using a carbon filter.
Filtered water that removes chlorine, chloramine, and most heavy metals.
Distilled or reverse‑osmosis water, providing a neutral baseline free of additives.

Regularly test water quality to confirm the absence of harmful residues before offering it to mice. This practice ensures physiological stability and reproducibility of experimental outcomes.

Stagnant or Unclean Water

Providing mice with stagnant or unclean water introduces pathogens, promotes bacterial growth, and creates an environment conducive to respiratory and gastrointestinal illness. Contaminated water sources may contain mold spores, parasites, and toxic metabolites that compromise immune function and accelerate mortality rates.

Risks associated with compromised water quality include:

Rapid proliferation of Pseudomonas and E. coli, leading to septicemia.
Presence of heavy metals or chemicals that impair renal and hepatic systems.
Elevated ammonia levels from bacterial decomposition, causing respiratory distress.
Increased stress response, reducing breeding success and litter viability.

Optimal husbandry practices require fresh, filtered water changed daily to maintain hygiene, prevent disease transmission, and support normal physiological processes.