Folk remedies against rats and mice

The Problem of Rodent Infestation

Risks Associated with Rats and Mice

Health Hazards and Disease Transmission

Rats and mice serve as vectors for numerous pathogens, contaminating food, water, and surfaces with urine, feces, and saliva. Direct contact or inhalation of aerosolized particles can introduce infections to humans and domestic animals.

Leptospira spp. – cause leptospirosis, presenting with fever, muscle pain, and kidney damage.
Salmonella enterica – leads to gastrointestinal distress, fever, and dehydration.
Hantavirus – triggers hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, characterized by rapid respiratory failure.
Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus – produces flu‑like symptoms and, in severe cases, neurological impairment.
Rat‑borne rickettsiae – result in spotted fevers with rash, headache, and systemic inflammation.

Traditional rodent deterrents rely on plant extracts, mineral powders, and animal products applied to entry points, bait stations, or nesting sites. While some substances exhibit repellent properties, scientific evidence of consistent pathogen reduction remains limited. Improper preparation can introduce secondary hazards, such as toxic fumes or allergic reactions.

Effective disease control combines sanitary measures with evidence‑based interventions. Secure food storage, eliminate standing water, seal structural gaps, and maintain regular cleaning schedules. When folk preparations are employed, verify ingredient safety, use appropriate concentrations, and complement them with professional pest‑management strategies to minimize health risks.

Damage to Property and Infrastructure

Rodents cause extensive damage to buildings, wiring, insulation, and stored goods. Their gnawing behavior compromises structural timber, breaches plastic and rubber components, and creates short‑circuit risks by chewing electrical cables. Contamination of food supplies and accumulation of droppings lead to health hazards and spoilage of commercial inventories.

Traditional rodent control practices mitigate these losses without relying on chemical pesticides. Common household measures include:

Peppermint oil or menthol crystals placed near entry points to repel gnawing activity.
Dried herbs such as lavender, rosemary, or cloves scattered in attics and crawl spaces to discourage nesting.
Homemade snap traps fashioned from wooden blocks and steel wire, positioned along walls and behind appliances.
Salt or powdered cayenne applied around foundations to create an unfriendly barrier for burrowing.

When applied correctly, these methods reduce the frequency of structural damage and lower repair costs. They also preserve building materials, as natural repellents do not corrode metal or degrade paint.

Effectiveness depends on proper placement, regular replenishment of volatile substances, and integration with sanitation measures. Overreliance on a single remedy may allow rodents to habituate, diminishing the protective impact. Combining multiple folk techniques with routine inspection offers the most reliable defense against property deterioration caused by rats and mice.

Traditional Methods of Rodent Control

Repellent Herbs and Plants

Mint and Its Varieties

Mint, in its many cultivated forms, serves as a common element in traditional rodent deterrent practices. The strong aromatic oils emitted by the plant interfere with the keen sense of smell that rats and mice rely on for navigation and foraging. When introduced into a dwelling or garden, mint creates an environment that rodents typically avoid.

Spearmint (Mentha spicata): Produces a milder scent, suitable for indoor use in closets and pantry corners; leaves can be crushed and placed near entry points.
Peppermint (Mentha × piperita): Contains higher menthol concentrations; essential oil diluted with water forms an effective spray for cracks, walls, and storage containers.
Apple mint (Mentha suaveolens): Emits a fruity aroma; fresh sprigs can be planted around the perimeter of a vegetable plot to discourage burrowing.
Pineapple mint (Mentha suaveolens ‘Variegata’): Offers visual deterrence as well, with variegated foliage that can be used as a ground cover where rodent activity is observed.

Application methods include scattering dried leaves, soaking cotton balls in diluted peppermint oil, or planting live specimens along foundations. Regular renewal of the scent source—replacing dried material every few weeks and re‑applying oil sprays—maintains effectiveness. Mint’s rapid growth and ease of propagation make it a sustainable component of low‑cost, community‑based pest management.

Tansy and Wormwood

Tansy (Tanacetum vulgare) and wormwood (Artemisia absinthium) are long‑used botanical agents in traditional rodent control. Their strong, bitter essential oils create an environment that most rats and mice avoid, reducing infestation without the need for synthetic poisons.

Preparation of a repellent paste: combine equal parts dried tansy leaves, crushed wormwood, and powdered chalk; add enough water to form a thick paste; apply to entry points, burrows, and along walls.
Spray formulation: steep 30 g of each herb in 1 L of hot water for 15 minutes; strain, cool, and pour into a spray bottle; mist interior corners, storage areas, and known pathways weekly.
Loose‑herb barrier: scatter a thin layer of dried plant material around foundations, garden beds, and compost heaps; replace after rain or disturbance.

Both plants contain sesquiterpene lactones and thujone, compounds toxic to rodents when ingested in sufficient quantities. Toxicity to humans and domestic animals is low when used externally, but ingestion of large doses should be avoided. Integration with sanitation measures—eliminating food sources and sealing gaps—enhances efficacy and limits the need for repeated applications.

Elderberry and Its Properties

Elderberry (Sambucus nigra) is a deciduous shrub native to temperate regions. The plant contains anthocyanins, flavonoids, and a range of organic acids that give the berries their deep color and bitter taste. These compounds exhibit astringent and mildly toxic effects on small mammals when ingested in sufficient quantities.

Traditional rodent control practices incorporate dried elderberries or crushed bark into traps, stored grain, or boundary lines. The bitter taste deters rats and mice from entering treated areas, while the low‑level toxicity reduces the likelihood of repeated foraging. Field observations report decreased activity of commensal rodents in storage rooms where elderberry material is applied.

Key properties relevant to pest deterrence:

High tannin concentration creates an unpalatable surface for gnawing rodents.
Volatile phenolic compounds emit a scent that rodents associate with unsuitable habitats.
Mild toxicity interferes with digestive processes, discouraging further consumption.

Preparation guidelines for folk applications:

Harvest mature berries, remove stems, and dry them at 40 °C for 24 hours.
Grind dried berries into a coarse powder.
Distribute powder along entry points, near food stores, or mix with grain at a ratio of 1 % by weight.

Caution: Elderberry parts contain cyanogenic glycosides; excessive exposure may affect non‑target species. Use protective gloves during handling and limit application to enclosed storage environments.

Natural Repellents and Scents

Essential Oils and Their Effectiveness

Essential oils are a cornerstone of many traditional rodent deterrent practices. Their volatile compounds interfere with the olfactory receptors of rats and mice, creating an environment that rodents instinctively avoid.

Commonly employed oils include:

Peppermint oil – high menthol content produces a strong, minty scent that repels rodents within a radius of 1–2 m.
Eucalyptus oil – cineole and pinene create a sharp aroma that disrupts rodent navigation.
Citronella oil – citronellal and geraniol generate a citrus-like odor unpleasant to both rats and mice.
Clove oil – eugenol delivers a pungent fragrance that deters nesting activity.
Tea tree oil – terpinen‑4‑ol contributes a medicinal smell that discourages foraging.

Effectiveness depends on concentration, application method, and environmental conditions. Research indicates that a 5 % solution applied to cotton balls or soaked cloths can reduce rodent presence for up to three weeks, after which re‑application is necessary. Direct spraying on entry points or along baseboards extends the protective zone but requires frequent renewal due to rapid evaporation.

Safety considerations are essential. Pure oils may irritate skin and mucous membranes; dilution with carrier oils or water is mandatory. Pets, especially cats, are sensitive to certain compounds (e.g., eugenol), so placement should avoid areas accessible to animals. Essential oils should not replace structural exclusion measures such as sealing gaps, but they complement these actions by adding a chemical barrier.

Empirical observations from field trials report a 30–70 % decline in rodent activity when essential oils are integrated with traps and sanitation protocols. Consistent monitoring and timely replenishment of oil sources maintain the deterrent effect and prevent habituation.

Vinegar and Ammonia

Vinegar and ammonia are common household chemicals employed in traditional rodent control. Both substances emit strong odors that rodents find unpleasant, disrupting their nesting and foraging behavior.

Vinegar
• Mix equal parts white vinegar and water.
• Apply the solution to entry points, pathways, and surfaces where rodent activity is observed.
• Reapply after rain or cleaning to maintain potency.
Ammonia
• Dilute ammonia with water in a 1:3 ratio.
• Soak cotton balls or cloth strips and place them in concealed areas such as wall voids, attics, or under appliances.
• Replace soaked materials every few days to ensure a consistent vapor concentration.

Both agents act as repellents rather than poisons; they do not kill rodents but encourage relocation. Effectiveness depends on proper placement and regular renewal of the scent barrier. Combining these chemicals with physical exclusion measures—sealing cracks, installing screens, and removing food sources—enhances overall control outcomes.

Ash and Sawdust

Ash and sawdust have long served as inexpensive, readily available components in traditional rodent control practices. Both materials create an environment that rodents find hostile: ash absorbs moisture and eliminates scent trails, while sawdust interferes with traction and burrowing ability. When applied correctly, they reduce the likelihood of rats and mice establishing nests in storage areas, sheds, and crawl spaces.

Effective use of ash requires a thin, even layer—approximately ½ inch—spread along walls, entry points, and around food stores. The fine particles dry out fur and pads, making movement uncomfortable and discouraging repeated visits. Sawdust should be placed in shallow trays or spread in cracks where rodents travel; the loose texture hampers footing and can be combined with traps to increase capture rates.

Key considerations for deployment:

Source quality: Use clean, untreated wood ash and dry, uncoated sawdust to avoid introducing chemicals that may attract insects.
Placement frequency: Reapply after cleaning or when the layer becomes compacted, typically every two to three weeks.
Safety: Keep ash away from open flames; store sawdust in dry conditions to prevent mold growth.
Integration: Pair with mechanical barriers (e.g., seal gaps) and baited traps for a comprehensive strategy.

When maintained consistently, ash and sawdust form an economical, low‑toxicity barrier that complements other folk pest‑deterrent techniques.

Homemade Traps and Baits

Mechanical Traps Using Improvised Materials

Improvised mechanical traps remain a cornerstone of traditional rodent control, offering low‑cost, reusable solutions when commercial devices are unavailable. Builders rely on locally sourced items—bamboo, wire, wooden planks, and empty containers—to create devices that trigger a spring or collapse when a rodent enters.

Typical components include:

A sturdy frame (e.g., split bamboo or thin timber) forming a tunnel or cage.
A trigger mechanism such as a bent wire latch, a snapped stick, or a bent coat hanger that releases under pressure.
A containment chamber, often an overturned bucket, a glass jar, or a woven basket, positioned to receive the animal once the trigger activates.
Bait placed at the far end of the tunnel, commonly grain, peanut butter, or dried fruit, to entice the pest.

Construction steps:

Cut the frame to a length of 30–45 cm, ensuring enough space for a mouse or rat to pass.
Attach the trigger latch to the entry side, securing it with a loose knot or pin that snaps when the rodent pushes forward.
Position the containment chamber directly behind the latch, securing its opening with a thin strip of fabric that tears under the trigger’s force.
Place bait on a small platform inside the tunnel, near the latch, to encourage full entry.
Test the mechanism with a gentle push to confirm reliable release before deployment.

Effective placement follows rodent behavior patterns: install traps along walls, near known gnawing sites, and behind stored food. Check traps daily; remove captured animals promptly, reset the latch, and replenish bait as needed. Regular maintenance—tightening loose wires and replacing worn components—extends the trap’s service life and sustains its efficacy.

Food Baits with Natural Additives

Food baits that incorporate natural additives represent a cornerstone of traditional rodent control. These mixtures combine a palatable attractant with a biologically active component that deters or eliminates rats and mice without reliance on synthetic poisons.

The attractant portion typically consists of grains, nuts, or dried fruit, chosen for their high carbohydrate content and strong odor. Adding a natural additive enhances efficacy and reduces the risk of secondary poisoning. Common agents include:

Peppermint oil – strong scent interferes with rodent olfactory cues, prompting consumption of the bait and subsequent disruption of the digestive system.
Capsaicin – derived from hot peppers, creates a burning sensation that discourages feeding after an initial intake, leading to aversion.
Garlic extract – contains allicin, which is toxic to rodents in moderate quantities and adds a pungent flavor that attracts them initially.
Cinnamon powder – acts as both an attractant and a mild irritant, accelerating gastrointestinal distress.
Essential oil blend (clove, eucalyptus, citronella) – synergistic effect produces disorientation and loss of appetite after ingestion.

Formulation guidelines recommend a ratio of 70 % attractant to 30 % additive, adjusted according to local rodent preferences. Mixing should occur in a dry environment to preserve volatile compounds; moisture accelerates degradation and reduces potency.

Placement strategy influences success. Bait stations should be positioned along established runways, near walls, and within concealed areas such as attics or crawl spaces. Secure containers prevent access by non‑target species while allowing rodents to enter through narrow entry points.

Monitoring involves regular inspection of bait consumption and visual confirmation of reduced activity. If bait depletion occurs rapidly without a corresponding decline in sightings, increase additive concentration by 5 % to intensify the toxic effect.

Integration with habitat management—removing food sources, sealing entry points, and maintaining cleanliness—maximizes the impact of natural bait formulations and sustains long‑term rodent suppression.

Other Folk Approaches

Sound Repellents and Ultrasonic Devices

Sound repellents employ audible frequencies that rodents find irritating. Devices generate tones ranging from 2 kHz to 10 kHz, overlapping the hearing range of rats and mice. Continuous emission creates an environment that discourages nesting and foraging. Effectiveness depends on placement; the sound attenuates rapidly, so emitters must be positioned near entry points, food storage areas, and known runways. Power sources vary from mains electricity to battery packs, allowing both indoor and outdoor deployment.

Ultrasonic devices operate above the human hearing threshold, typically between 20 kHz and 65 kHz. Rodents perceive these frequencies as harsh, leading to avoidance behavior. Modern units incorporate multiple transducers to cover a broader area and may include motion sensors that activate the emitter only when activity is detected, conserving energy and reducing habituation. Installation guidelines recommend mounting units at least 30 cm from walls, avoiding obstruction by furniture, and spacing emitters no more than 3 m apart in larger spaces.

Key considerations when selecting acoustic deterrents:

Frequency range: ensure overlap with rodent auditory sensitivity.
Coverage area: match device specifications to the size of the target space.
Power source: evaluate reliability of mains versus battery operation.
Safety features: verify that devices emit no harmful levels of electromagnetic radiation.
Warranty and service: prefer manufacturers offering technical support and replacement parts.

Limitations of acoustic methods include habituation, where rodents become accustomed to constant tones, and reduced efficacy in cluttered environments that block sound propagation. Combining sound repellents with physical barriers, sanitation, and habitat modification enhances overall control. Regular monitoring of rodent activity, using tracking plates or visual inspection, informs adjustments to device placement and operation schedules.

Utilizing Natural Predators

Natural predators serve as a practical component of traditional rodent control strategies. Domestic cats, when allowed outdoor access, reduce local rat and mouse populations through regular hunting. Owls, particularly barn and tawny species, can be encouraged by installing nesting boxes on farm structures; these birds hunt nocturnally and target larger rodent groups. Hawks and kestrels benefit from perches and open fields that provide clear sightlines for spotting prey. Ferrets, historically employed in European farms, pursue rodents into burrows and tight spaces where other predators cannot reach. Snakes, especially non-venomous constrictors, naturally limit rodent numbers when suitable shelter is available.

To integrate these predators effectively, follow these actions:

Place sturdy, predator‑specific nesting boxes at heights of 10–15 feet, oriented away from prevailing winds.
Install perches and roosting platforms on barns, silos, and fence lines to attract raptors.
Maintain a modest supply of rodent carcasses or small prey items near nesting sites to support fledgling development.
Provide shelter such as rock piles, brush heaps, or log stacks to attract snakes and ferrets.
Limit the use of rodenticides that could poison secondary predators, thereby preserving their hunting capacity.

Field observations indicate that sustained predator presence can lower rodent activity by 30–50 percent over seasonal cycles. Combining these measures with habitat management—removing excess food sources, sealing entry points, and reducing clutter—maximizes the impact of natural predation within folk‑based pest control programs.

Safety and Effectiveness Considerations

Potential Risks of Folk Remedies

Impact on Humans and Pets

Traditional rodent deterrents based on natural substances can affect household members and companion animals.

Toxicity is the primary concern. Essential oils such as peppermint or eucalyptus, powdered herbs like mustard, and castor‑based emulsions contain compounds that irritate mucous membranes, depress the central nervous system, or cause gastrointestinal distress when swallowed or inhaled. Even low concentrations may be hazardous to small pets and children.

Allergic reactions and skin irritation occur frequently. Direct contact with powdered plant material or sprayed solutions can provoke dermatitis, sneezing, or conjunctival inflammation in sensitive individuals and animals.

Accidental exposure is common in homes where bait is placed openly. Cats and dogs may lick treated surfaces, chew on bait packets, or ingest contaminated food. Young children may handle sachets or brushes used to apply the remedies, increasing the risk of ingestion or dermal contact.

Environmental contamination extends the impact. Residues on countertops, flooring, or pet bedding can be transferred to food, water, or grooming products, creating a secondary exposure pathway. Persistent odors may also affect the comfort of occupants.

Mitigation measures include:

Positioning bait or spray in areas inaccessible to pets and children.
Using the minimum effective dose and limiting application frequency.
Clearly labeling containers with hazard warnings.
Monitoring treated zones regularly for signs of exposure.

Adhering to these practices reduces health risks while preserving the efficacy of traditional rodent control methods.

Environmental Concerns

Traditional rodent control methods that employ plant extracts, mineral powders, and animal-derived substances interact directly with ecosystems. Their low‑technology nature reduces reliance on synthetic chemicals, yet the ecological footprint depends on the specific ingredients and application practices.

Natural preparations often decompose rapidly, limiting long‑term soil accumulation. However, some compounds—such as heavy‑metal salts or concentrated essential oils—retain biological activity that can affect insects, earthworms, and beneficial microbes when dispersed beyond target zones.

Toxicity to non‑target organisms: broad‑spectrum botanicals may deter beneficial insects and small vertebrates.
Soil chemistry alteration: repeated use of alkaline or acidic substances can shift pH, influencing nutrient availability.
Waterway contamination: runoff from treated areas may introduce bioactive agents into streams, affecting aquatic life.
Persistence of residues: mineral powders containing copper or zinc can linger, accumulating in the food chain.

Effective management requires precise dosing, limited spatial coverage, and selection of agents with documented selectivity. Integrating habitat‑friendly practices—such as rotating plant species, employing physical barriers, and monitoring biodiversity indices—mitigates adverse outcomes while preserving the cultural heritage of folk pest control.

Efficacy of Traditional Methods

When Folk Remedies Are Sufficient

Traditional rodent control methods can resolve minor infestations without professional intervention when specific conditions are met. Small populations confined to a single structure, limited food sources, and absence of structural damage indicate that simple, non‑chemical tactics may be effective.

Key indicators that folk practices are sufficient include:

Population estimate below ten individuals.
Activity observed only in isolated areas such as attics or sheds.
No evidence of gnawing on wiring, insulation, or stored goods.
Availability of natural deterrents (e.g., peppermint oil, dried herbs) that can be applied regularly.

Implementation of these measures requires consistent application. Place aromatic repellents on entry points, maintain a clean environment to eliminate attractants, and use physical barriers such as steel mesh to prevent ingress. Monitoring should continue for at least three weeks; a steady decline in sightings confirms success.

If any of the following occurs, escalation to professional pest control becomes necessary: rapid population growth, damage to structural components, contamination of food supplies, or repeated failure of traditional tactics after a fortnight of diligent use.

When Professional Intervention is Necessary

Traditional rodent control methods can manage isolated sightings, but several indicators demand the expertise of licensed exterminators.

Infestation affecting more than ten individuals within a single structure.
Evidence of gnaw damage to electrical wiring, plumbing, or structural components.
Presence of rodent-borne pathogens confirmed by health officials.
Failure of homemade traps or natural deterrents after a two‑week trial period.
Legal requirements for pest management in food‑handling or rental properties.

Professional services provide access to certified chemicals, containment equipment, and inspection protocols that exceed the capabilities of home‑crafted solutions. Certified technicians can assess entry points, implement integrated management plans, and ensure compliance with local health regulations.

When selecting a provider, verify current licensing, request a written scope of work, and confirm that the company follows integrated pest management principles. These steps guarantee effective eradication while minimizing unnecessary chemical exposure.

Preventing Future Infestations

Maintaining Cleanliness and Hygiene

Proper Food Storage

Proper food storage reduces the attraction of rats and mice, supporting the effectiveness of traditional rodent control methods. Secure containers and clean environments deny pests access to nutrients, preventing population growth.

Use airtight, metal or heavy‑plastic containers with sealed lids for grains, nuts, dried fruits, and pet food.
Store perishable items in refrigeration or frozen compartments; discard expired products promptly.
Keep pantry shelves cleared of crumbs and spills; sweep and wipe surfaces after each use.
Position storage units away from walls and corners; maintain a gap of at least two inches for inspection.
Rotate stock regularly, placing newer items behind older ones to avoid prolonged exposure.

Combining these practices with customary deterrents—such as placing dried mint, cloves, or neem leaves near entry points—creates a hostile environment for rodents. The physical barrier of sealed containers prevents ingestion, while aromatic herbs reinforce the repellent effect.

Routine inspection of containers for damage, regular cleaning of storage areas, and prompt repair of cracks in walls or floors sustain the protective barrier. Consistent application of these measures minimizes rodent activity and enhances the overall success of folk-based rodent management strategies.

Waste Management

Effective waste handling reduces the attraction of rodents to human habitats. Traditional rodent control methods rely on limiting food sources, and proper disposal of organic and refuse material is a primary means of achieving that goal.

Key practices include:

Separating kitchen scraps from dry waste to prevent fermentation that draws rats and mice.
Storing garbage in airtight containers made of metal or thick plastic.
Removing waste from living areas at least once daily, preferably before dusk.
Composting plant material in enclosed bins with a lid, adding a layer of ash or lime to deter burrowing.

Folk techniques often incorporate locally available substances. Sprinkling wood ash, powdered chalk, or dried neem leaves around waste piles creates an environment that rodents find inhospitable. Burning dried herbs such as rosemary or sage near trash sites releases volatile oils that repel rodents without chemical additives.

Integrating these measures with other customary practices—such as sealing entry points, maintaining clean surroundings, and using predator scents—creates a comprehensive, low‑cost strategy for rodent suppression. Consistent application of disciplined waste management maximizes the effectiveness of traditional deterrents and minimizes the need for modern poisons.

Sealing Entry Points

Inspecting and Repairing Cracks

Traditional rodent control practices rely on eliminating shelter as a primary defense. Cracks in walls, foundations, and flooring provide entry points and nesting sites for rats and mice; therefore, systematic inspection and repair are indispensable components of any folk-based pest‑deterrent strategy.

Inspection begins with a thorough visual survey of interior and exterior surfaces. Look for linear openings wider than ¼ inch, gaps around pipes, and hairline fissures that widen with humidity. Use a flashlight to illuminate shadowed areas and a thin probe or steel wool to test the integrity of suspicious seams. Document each defect with location, dimensions, and material type to prioritize remediation.

Repair methods vary according to substrate:

Masonry: clean the crack, apply a bonding agent, fill with hydraulic cement or lime‑based mortar, and smooth the surface.
Wood: remove loose fibers, insert a wood filler or epoxy paste, sand flush, and seal with a polyurethane coating.
Concrete: chisel ragged edges, wet the area, pack with a polymer‑modified concrete mix, and cure under damp conditions.
Metal or brick veneer: use a flexible, oil‑based sealant that adheres to both surfaces, then reinforce with a metal patch if movement persists.

After sealing, apply a natural deterrent such as a mixture of garlic oil, peppermint essential oil, or dried herbs around the repaired zone. Re‑inspect quarterly; any re‑opened cracks indicate structural movement that requires additional reinforcement. Consistent maintenance of sealed openings deprives rodents of access, reinforcing the overall efficacy of traditional pest‑control measures.

Securing Doors and Windows

Securing doors and windows prevents rodents from entering living spaces, complementing traditional rodent control practices. Effective barriers block the most common entry points and reduce the need for chemical deterrents.

Install weather‑stripping around door frames, ensuring a tight seal when the door closes. Fit door sweeps that extend to the floor, eliminating gaps under the threshold. Apply fine mesh screens to all windows; choose hardware cloth with openings no larger than ¼ inch to stop even juvenile mice. Inspect interior and exterior walls for cracks, holes, or gaps around pipes, vents, and utility lines, and fill them with steel wool followed by caulking or expanding foam.

Check door hinges and latch mechanisms; adjust for flush closure.
Replace damaged or torn window screens promptly.
Use silicone sealant on exterior trim to create a continuous barrier.
Maintain regular inspections, especially after seasonal weather changes.

Consistent application of these measures creates a physical shield that aligns with folk-based rodent deterrence strategies, reducing infestations without reliance on toxic substances.