Diseases Carried by Mice: Prevention and Treatment

Understanding Mice as Disease Vectors

Common Diseases Transmitted by Mice

Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome («HPS»)

Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome (HPS) is a severe respiratory disease caused by infection with hantaviruses carried primarily by wild rodents, especially the deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus). Human cases occur mainly in North and South America, with a case‑fatality rate of 30‑40 %.

Transmission results from inhalation of aerosolized virus particles shed in rodent urine, feces, or saliva. Activities that disturb rodent habitats—cleaning cabins, sweeping sheds, or handling nesting material—elevate exposure risk. Direct contact with rodents or their secretions can also transmit the virus, though person‑to‑person spread has not been documented.

The incubation period ranges from 1 to 5 weeks. Initial symptoms include fever, myalgia, and headache, followed within 24–48 hours by rapid onset of cough, shortness of breath, and hypoxia due to non‑cardiogenic pulmonary edema. Laboratory findings often reveal thrombocytopenia and elevated hematocrit.

Diagnosis relies on detection of hantavirus–specific IgM antibodies or viral RNA by polymerase‑chain‑reaction assays from blood samples. Early identification is critical because clinical deterioration can occur within hours.

Prevention measures:

Seal entry points to homes, cabins, and outbuildings; use metal or concrete to block mouse access.
Reduce food and water sources by storing supplies in rodent‑proof containers and maintaining clean kitchen areas.
Wear protective gloves and masks when cleaning areas contaminated with rodent droppings; disinfect surfaces with a 1 % bleach solution before disturbance.
Conduct regular rodent‑population monitoring and control programs in high‑risk environments.

Treatment options:

Provide immediate supportive care in an intensive‑care setting, including supplemental oxygen, mechanical ventilation, and careful fluid management to avoid worsening pulmonary edema.
Administer ribavirin only within clinical trials; current evidence does not support routine use for HPS.
Monitor hemodynamic status continuously; use vasopressors if hypotension develops.
Implement early recognition protocols to expedite transfer to facilities equipped for advanced respiratory support.

Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis Virus («LCMV»)

Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) is an arenavirus primarily maintained in wild and laboratory rodents, especially the common house mouse (Mus musculus). Infected mice shed the virus in urine, feces, saliva, and birth fluids, creating a persistent environmental source of infection for humans and other mammals.

Human exposure occurs through direct contact with contaminated rodent materials, inhalation of aerosolized particles, or bites. The virus can also be transmitted vertically from pregnant women to fetuses, resulting in congenital infection. Outbreaks are most common in settings with poor rodent control, such as grain storage facilities, research laboratories, and households with infestations.

Clinical presentation varies. Acute infection typically produces a self‑limited febrile illness with headache, neck stiffness, and photophobia. In some cases, encephalitis develops, leading to seizures, altered consciousness, or focal neurological deficits. Immunocompromised patients may experience severe, prolonged disease. Congenital infection can cause hydrocephalus, microcephaly, and developmental delays.

Diagnosis relies on laboratory testing. Serological assays detect LCMV‑specific IgM and IgG antibodies, while reverse‑transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT‑PCR) identifies viral RNA in blood, cerebrospinal fluid, or tissue specimens. Viral culture is rarely performed due to biosafety concerns.

Prevention strategies focus on rodent management and hygiene:

Seal building entry points and eliminate food sources to deter mouse infestations.
Use traps or professional pest‑control services in infested areas.
Wear gloves and protective clothing when handling rodents or cleaning contaminated spaces.
Disinfect surfaces with bleach‑based solutions after rodent removal.
Pregnant women should avoid contact with rodents and their excreta.

Treatment options are limited. No antiviral drug is approved specifically for LCMV; care is supportive, addressing fever, pain, and neurological complications. Ribavirin has shown in‑vitro activity but lacks conclusive clinical evidence. Hospitalization is recommended for severe encephalitis or immunocompromised patients to monitor for complications and provide intensive supportive measures.

Public health surveillance monitors rodent populations and human cases to inform control efforts. Education of at‑risk groups—laboratory personnel, pest‑control workers, and residents of high‑infestation areas—reduces exposure and mitigates disease impact.

Salmonellosis

Salmonellosis is a bacterial infection caused by Salmonella spp. that can be transmitted to humans through contact with contaminated mice or their excreta. Rodent infestations in residential, agricultural, and laboratory settings increase the risk of environmental contamination, as mice shed the pathogen in feces, urine, and saliva. Ingestion of food or water tainted by these secretions, or direct handling of infected animals, constitutes the primary route of human exposure.

Transmission control focuses on eliminating rodent access to food storage and preparation areas, maintaining sanitation, and applying integrated pest management (IPM) practices. Effective measures include:

Sealing cracks, gaps, and entry points in building structures.
Storing food in airtight containers and removing spillage promptly.
Conducting routine inspections and setting traps or bait stations according to local regulations.
Implementing regular cleaning schedules for surfaces, equipment, and waste disposal containers.
Training personnel on proper handling of rodents and contaminated materials.

When infection occurs, clinical management comprises supportive care and, when indicated, antimicrobial therapy. Recommended actions are:

Rehydration with oral or intravenous fluids to correct electrolyte imbalances.
Administration of fluoroquinolones (e.g., ciprofloxacin) or third‑generation cephalosporins for severe cases, guided by susceptibility testing.
Monitoring for complications such as bacteremia, meningitis, or septic arthritis, and providing targeted treatment as needed.
Advising patients on food safety and personal hygiene to prevent secondary spread.

Preventing mouse‑associated salmonellosis requires a coordinated approach that integrates environmental hygiene, structural barriers, and responsible pest control. Prompt identification of rodent activity and adherence to the outlined preventive and therapeutic protocols reduce the incidence of illness and limit public health impact.

Leptospirosis

Leptospirosis is a bacterial infection transmitted by the urine of infected rodents, particularly mice. Humans acquire the disease through direct contact with contaminated water, soil, or food, or through skin abrasions and mucous membranes. The pathogen, Leptospira spp., can survive in moist environments for weeks, facilitating exposure in agricultural, urban, and recreational settings.

Clinical manifestations range from mild flu‑like symptoms to severe organ dysfunction. Early signs include high fever, chills, headache, muscle aches, and conjunctival redness. Progression may involve jaundice, renal failure, hemorrhagic pneumonia, or meningitis. Laboratory confirmation relies on serologic testing (MAT) or polymerase chain reaction (PCR) of blood, urine, or cerebrospinal fluid.

Prevention strategies

Control mouse populations in residential and occupational areas through traps, bait stations, and exclusion techniques.
Maintain proper sanitation; eliminate food residues and standing water that attract rodents.
Wear protective gloves and waterproof boots when handling soil, livestock, or water sources likely contaminated with rodent urine.
Implement personal hygiene protocols: wash hands and exposed skin thoroughly after field work or animal contact.
Vaccinate high‑risk occupational groups (e.g., farmers, sewer workers) where vaccines are available and approved.

Treatment recommendations

Initiate antimicrobial therapy promptly; doxycycline (100 mg orally twice daily for 7 days) is first‑line for mild to moderate cases.
For severe infection, administer intravenous penicillin G (1.5–2 million units every 6 hours) or ceftriaxone (2 g daily) for 10–14 days.
Supportive care includes fluid resuscitation, renal replacement therapy if needed, and management of hepatic or respiratory complications.
Monitor renal function and hepatic enzymes throughout treatment; adjust dosing for renal impairment.

Effective control of leptospirosis hinges on integrated rodent management, environmental hygiene, personal protective measures, and timely medical intervention.

Rat-Bite Fever

Rat‑bite fever is a bacterial infection transmitted primarily through the bite or scratch of an infected rodent, especially the common house mouse. The causative agents are Streptobacillus moniliformis in most regions and Spirillum minus in parts of Asia.

Clinical presentation typically emerges within 3–10 days after exposure. Common manifestations include high fever, chills, headache, myalgia, and a maculopapular or petechial rash that often spreads to the extremities. Joint pain and swelling may accompany the illness, and in severe cases, endocarditis, meningitis, or sepsis develop.

Diagnosis relies on a combination of patient history, physical findings, and laboratory confirmation. Blood cultures, especially when incubated under aerobic conditions, detect S. moniliformis. Polymerase chain reaction assays and serologic testing provide additional support, particularly for S. minus infections.

Effective management begins with prompt antimicrobial therapy. First‑line treatment consists of:

Penicillin G, administered intravenously for 7–10 days, followed by oral amoxicillin to complete a 2–3‑week course.
For penicillin‑allergic patients, doxycycline or ciprofloxacin serves as an alternative.

Supportive care includes antipyretics for fever and analgesics for joint discomfort. Early intervention reduces the risk of complications and shortens recovery time.

Prevention centers on minimizing rodent exposure and controlling infestations. Key measures are:

Sealing entry points in buildings and maintaining clean storage areas to deter mouse habitation.
Using traps or professional pest‑control services to reduce rodent populations.
Wearing thick gloves when handling rodents or cleaning cages, and washing hands thoroughly afterward.
Promptly cleaning any bite or scratch with antiseptic solution and seeking medical evaluation if symptoms develop.

Vaccination against rat‑bite fever does not exist; vigilance and hygiene remain the primary defenses.

Modes of Transmission

Direct Contact

Direct contact with mice, such as handling, bites, scratches, or exposure to contaminated fur and secretions, provides a primary route for the transmission of rodent‑borne pathogens. The skin, mucous membranes, and open wounds serve as entry points for infectious agents carried by these animals.

Common illnesses spread through this route include:

Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, transferred when virus‑laden saliva or urine contacts broken skin.
Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus, transmitted via bites or contaminated bodily fluids.
Leptospirosis, introduced through contact with urine‑soaked fur.
Rat‑bite fever (Streptobacillus moniliformis infection), resulting from bite wounds.

Preventive actions focus on eliminating direct exposure and protecting vulnerable tissue:

Wear disposable gloves and long‑sleeved clothing when cleaning areas inhabited by mice.
Use puncture‑resistant containers for trap disposal to avoid accidental bites.
Apply antiseptic solutions immediately after any skin breach caused by rodents.
Implement integrated pest management to reduce mouse populations and limit human‑rodent interaction.
Educate personnel handling laboratory or field mice about proper hygiene and protective equipment.

If direct contact occurs, prompt medical response reduces disease severity:

Clean the wound with soap and water, then apply a broad‑spectrum antiseptic.
Seek medical evaluation within 24 hours; clinicians should assess for signs of infection and consider empirical antimicrobial therapy when appropriate.
Initiate pathogen‑specific treatment: antiviral agents for hantavirus suspicion, doxycycline for leptospirosis, or appropriate antibiotics for rat‑bite fever.
Document exposure details to aid diagnostic testing and public‑health reporting.

Adhering to these measures limits the risk of infection and ensures timely therapeutic intervention when exposure cannot be avoided.

Indirect Contact («Fecal-Oral Route», «Aerosols»)

Mice transmit pathogens without direct bites by contaminating surfaces, food, or air. The fecal‑oral route occurs when rodent droppings or urine contact consumables, hands, or objects that are later ingested. Aerosol transmission happens when dried droppings, urine, or nesting material become airborne, are inhaled, or settle on mucous membranes.

Prevention focuses on eliminating exposure and reducing environmental contamination:

Seal entry points; install metal or concrete barriers on walls, floors, and ceilings.
Store food in sealed containers; discard waste promptly and clean storage areas with detergent followed by a disinfectant effective against viruses and bacteria (e.g., 0.1 % sodium hypochlorite).
Maintain low humidity and proper ventilation to prevent aerosolization of dried residues.
Conduct regular inspections; remove droppings with wet cleaning methods to avoid stirring up particles.
Use traps or professional pest‑control services to reduce mouse populations to below threshold levels.

When infection is suspected, treatment depends on the specific pathogen identified. General measures include:

Initiate empiric antimicrobial therapy based on likely agents (e.g., doxycycline for hantavirus‑like illnesses, streptomycin for leptospirosis) while awaiting laboratory confirmation.
Provide supportive care: fluid replacement for dehydration, respiratory support for pulmonary involvement, and antipyretics for fever.
Follow up with serologic or molecular testing to confirm diagnosis and adjust therapy accordingly.

Effective control combines environmental sanitation, strict food handling practices, and prompt medical response to limit disease spread from indirect mouse contact.

Vectors («Fleas», «Ticks», «Mites»)

Mice frequently harbor ectoparasites that act as biological carriers of pathogens capable of affecting humans and domestic animals. Fleas, ticks, and mites each transmit distinct microorganisms, demanding targeted control measures.

Fleas (primarily Xenopsylla and Ctenocephalides species) transmit Yersinia pestis (plague), Rickettsia typhi (murine typhus), and Bartonella spp. Effective control relies on regular application of insecticidal dust or sprays in infested areas, routine treatment of companion animals, and elimination of rodent nesting sites. When infection occurs, prompt antibiotic therapy—typically doxycycline or streptomycin for plague—combined with aggressive flea eradication reduces morbidity and prevents secondary spread.

Ticks (notably Ixodes and Dermacentor spp.) acquire Borrelia burgdorferi (Lyme disease), Rickettsia spp., and Anaplasma phagocytophilum from mouse hosts. Prevention emphasizes habitat modification (grass trimming, leaf litter removal), use of acaricidal products on premises, and protective clothing for personnel entering high‑risk zones. Early diagnosis followed by doxycycline administration is the standard therapeutic approach for most tick‑borne infections.

Mites such as Ornithonyssus bacoti and Dermanyssus gallinae serve as vectors for rickettsial pox, scrub typhus, and occasionally allergic dermatitis. Control strategies include thorough cleaning of mouse habitats, application of miticidal powders or sprays, and sealing entry points to limit rodent access. Treatment of confirmed cases often involves doxycycline, with adjunctive antihistamines or topical corticosteroids to alleviate cutaneous reactions.

Summary of vector‑related risks and countermeasures

Fleas
- Pathogens: plague, murine typhus, Bartonella spp.
- Prevention: insecticidal dust/sprays, pet treatment, nest removal.
- Treatment: appropriate antibiotics + flea eradication.
Ticks
- Pathogens: Lyme disease, rickettsial infections, anaplasmosis.
- Prevention: habitat management, acaricides, personal protective gear.
- Treatment: doxycycline or equivalent antibiotic regimen.
Mites
- Pathogens: rickettsial pox, scrub typhus, allergic dermatitis.
- Prevention: thorough cleaning, miticidal applications, exclusion of rodents.
- Treatment: doxycycline; symptomatic relief for skin irritation.

Prevention Strategies

Integrated Pest Management («IPM»)

Exclusion («Sealing Entry Points»)

Sealing all potential mouse ingress points interrupts the transmission chain of pathogens such as hantavirus, leptospirosis and salmonellosis. By eliminating access to residential and commercial structures, the likelihood of rodent contact with food, water and surfaces is reduced dramatically.

Effective exclusion requires a systematic approach:

Conduct a thorough inspection of the building envelope, focusing on gaps around doors, windows, utility penetrations, vents, and foundation cracks.
Measure each opening; any gap larger than ¼ inch (6 mm) must be considered a breach.
Apply appropriate sealing materials: steel wool or copper mesh for small voids, followed by caulk, expanding foam, or concrete patch for larger spaces.
Install self‑closing door sweeps and weatherstripping on exterior doors.
Fit metal flashing over vent openings and ensure chimney caps are intact.
Verify the integrity of roofing and soffit vents, reinforcing with hardware cloth where necessary.

After repairs, maintain a schedule of quarterly inspections to detect new openings caused by structural settling or weather damage. Prompt remediation sustains the barrier, limiting rodent presence and the associated health risks.

Sanitation («Food Storage», «Waste Management»)

Effective sanitation directly reduces the risk of mouse‑borne illnesses. Secure food storage eliminates attractive food sources, while proper waste management removes habitats that support rodent populations.

Store dry goods in airtight containers made of metal or heavy‑wall plastic; avoid open bags or cardboard boxes.
Keep pantry shelves clear of spills; clean surfaces daily with a detergent solution followed by a disinfectant approved for food‑contact areas.
Position food storage areas away from walls and utilities; maintain a minimum clearance of 18 inches to prevent mice from nesting behind appliances.
Use sealed metal trash cans with tight‑fitting lids; replace liners regularly to avoid leakage.
Remove organic waste from indoor spaces promptly; transport it to an external collection point at least 10 feet from building entrances.
Compact and cover yard debris, compost, and leaf piles; limit moisture accumulation that attracts rodents.
Conduct routine inspections for signs of gnawing, droppings, or nesting material; address any breach in storage or waste barriers immediately.

Implementing these sanitation practices disrupts the food chain and habitat requirements of mice, thereby lowering the incidence of diseases such as hantavirus, leptospirosis, and salmonellosis transmitted through contaminated food or waste.

Population Control («Trapping», «Baiting»)

Effective reduction of rodent numbers directly limits the spread of pathogens that rodents can transmit to humans and livestock. Two primary techniques—mechanical capture and chemical attraction—form the core of population management.

Mechanical capture relies on devices that physically restrain or kill rodents. Snap traps, live‑capture cages, and electronic units provide rapid removal when placed along established runways, near feeding stations, or adjacent to structural entry points. Proper placement follows these guidelines:

Align traps perpendicular to walls, with the trigger side facing the expected travel direction.
Use bait that appeals to local species, such as grain, peanut butter, or dried fruit, applied in a small amount to avoid contamination.
Check traps at least twice daily to prevent suffering and to maintain trap efficacy.
Dispose of captured rodents according to local health regulations, using sealed containers or incineration.

Chemical attraction, commonly referred to as baiting, employs anticoagulant or acute‑acting poisons distributed in secured stations. Successful baiting requires strict adherence to safety and efficacy protocols:

Select bait formulations approved for indoor or outdoor use, matching the target species’ feeding habits.
Install tamper‑resistant bait stations to protect non‑target wildlife, pets, and children.
Rotate active ingredients periodically to mitigate resistance development in rodent populations.
Monitor consumption rates; low uptake indicates bait aversion, improper placement, or competing food sources.

Integrating trapping and baiting with sanitation measures—such as sealing entry points, removing food debris, and maintaining dry environments—creates a comprehensive control program. Regular assessment of rodent activity, using tracking powders or motion sensors, informs adjustments to trap density and bait placement, ensuring sustained reduction of disease vectors.

Personal Protective Measures

Handling Mice and Contaminated Materials

Proper handling of mice and materials contaminated with rodent‑borne pathogens reduces transmission risk and protects personnel. Workers must wear disposable gloves, lab coats, and face protection before entering areas where mice are housed or where droppings, urine, or bedding are present. Hand hygiene should be performed immediately after glove removal, using an antimicrobial solution approved for laboratory use.

All cages, traps, and transport containers require sealing with airtight lids before moving them. When cleaning, use a disinfectant effective against bacteria, viruses, and parasites known to be carried by rodents; follow the manufacturer’s contact time. Surfaces should be wiped with a saturated cloth, then rinsed with clean water and allowed to air‑dry.

Disposal of contaminated waste follows these steps:

Place animal carcasses, bedding, and disposable PPE in biohazard‑labeled, leak‑proof bags.
Seal bags securely and label with date, location, and pathogen risk level.
Transfer sealed bags to a designated autoclave or incineration unit according to institutional biosafety protocols.

If a spill occurs, isolate the area, wear appropriate protective equipment, and apply a spill‑control kit containing absorbent material and disinfectant. After decontamination, document the incident, including materials involved, chemicals used, and personnel exposed.

Training programs must include:

Identification of rodent‑associated hazards.
Correct donning and doffing of protective gear.
Procedures for cage cleaning, waste segregation, and emergency spill response.
Record‑keeping requirements for compliance audits.

Adhering to these practices minimizes exposure to diseases transmitted by mice and ensures a safe working environment.

Avoiding Contaminated Areas

Mice frequently inhabit sewers, grain storage facilities, and abandoned structures, where they can contaminate surfaces with urine, feces, and pathogens. Limiting exposure to these environments reduces the risk of acquiring rodent‑transmitted illnesses.

Key practices for avoiding contaminated zones:

Identify high‑risk locations such as basements with moisture problems, poorly sealed crawl spaces, and outdoor dumpsters.
Restrict access to storage rooms by installing weather‑tight doors and sealing gaps larger than ¼ inch.
Maintain a clean perimeter: remove food debris, keep garbage containers covered, and trim vegetation that provides shelter.
Use physical barriers (metal mesh, concrete flooring) to separate work areas from potential rodent habitats.
Conduct regular inspections for droppings, gnaw marks, or nesting material; treat any findings promptly with approved disinfectants.

By consistently applying these measures, individuals and facilities can minimize contact with mouse‑borne pathogens and support effective disease prevention strategies.

Environmental Control

Landscape Maintenance

Effective landscape maintenance directly influences the control of mouse‑borne illnesses and supports therapeutic measures. Properly managed outdoor spaces reduce shelter and food sources for rodents, limiting exposure to pathogens such as hantavirus, leptospirosis, and salmonella. The following actions form a comprehensive approach:

Remove standing water, debris, and dense vegetation that provide nesting sites.
Trim hedges and grasses regularly to eliminate cover that encourages rodent movement.
Store compost, feed, and waste in sealed containers to deny rodents easy access to sustenance.
Install physical barriers, such as metal flashing or concrete edging, around building foundations and garden beds.
Conduct routine inspections for burrows, gnaw marks, and droppings; seal identified entry points promptly.
Apply environmentally safe rodent deterrents, ensuring compatibility with adjacent ecosystems and human health.

Integrating these practices into routine groundskeeping schedules creates an environment hostile to mice, thereby decreasing the prevalence of disease carriers and enhancing the effectiveness of medical interventions when exposure occurs.

Home and Business Maintenance

Mice can spread a range of pathogens that affect both residential and commercial environments. Effective maintenance reduces the likelihood of exposure and limits the spread of infections.

Seal cracks, gaps, and utility openings to block entry points.
Install door sweeps and weather stripping on all exterior doors.
Keep vegetation trimmed at least 12 inches from building foundations.
Store food in airtight containers; remove crumbs and spills promptly.
Use metal or concrete barriers around utility lines, vents, and ducts.
Conduct quarterly inspections of crawl spaces, attics, and storage areas for signs of activity.

When rodent activity is detected, immediate actions prevent disease transmission. Remove droppings and contaminated materials with disposable gloves, a HEPA‑rated vacuum, and a disinfectant effective against bacterial and viral agents. Dispose of waste in sealed bags and follow local health‑department guidelines for hazardous material handling.

Regular professional pest‑management services complement routine upkeep. Integrated approaches—combining structural repairs, sanitation, and targeted baiting—provide the most reliable defense against illnesses carried by mice in both homes and businesses.

Treatment Approaches

General Principles for Suspected Exposure

Seeking Medical Attention

When a rodent‑borne infection is suspected, prompt professional evaluation is essential. Early diagnosis reduces the risk of complications and improves therapeutic outcomes.

Key indicators that warrant immediate medical consultation include:

Fever exceeding 38 °C (100.4 °F) without an obvious source.
Persistent cough, shortness of breath, or chest pain.
Unexplained rash, especially if accompanied by itching or swelling.
Gastrointestinal distress such as vomiting, diarrhea, or abdominal pain that lasts more than 24 hours.
Neurological signs like headache, confusion, stiff neck, or seizures.
Rapidly enlarging lymph nodes or unexplained weight loss.

During the visit, clinicians will typically perform a targeted history that captures recent exposure to mice, occupational risks, and travel details. Physical examination focuses on organ systems implicated by the presenting symptoms. Laboratory investigations may comprise:

Complete blood count with differential to detect leukocytosis or eosinophilia.
Serologic assays for hantavirus, leptospira, or other relevant pathogens.
Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing of blood, urine, or tissue samples when available.
Imaging studies such as chest X‑ray or abdominal ultrasound if respiratory or abdominal involvement is suspected.

Treatment protocols depend on the identified organism. Antiviral agents (e.g., ribavirin) are indicated for certain hantavirus infections; antibiotics such as doxycycline or penicillin derivatives address bacterial agents like leptospira or salmonella. Supportive care—including fluid replacement, antipyretics, and oxygen therapy—complements pathogen‑specific therapy.

Follow‑up appointments should be scheduled within 48–72 hours to assess response, adjust medication, and monitor for delayed complications. Patients must report any new or worsening symptoms without delay.

In summary, recognizing the clinical red flags of mouse‑transmitted diseases and seeking timely medical care are critical steps to mitigate morbidity and ensure effective treatment.

Diagnostic Testing

Accurate identification of pathogens carried by mice is essential for effective control measures and therapeutic decisions. Diagnostic testing provides the evidence required to distinguish between bacterial, viral, parasitic, and fungal agents that can affect humans and domestic animals.

Common laboratory techniques include:

Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and quantitative PCR for rapid detection of DNA or RNA from agents such as hantavirus, Leptospira spp., and Salmonella.
Enzyme‑linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) to measure specific antibodies or antigens, useful for hantavirus serology and Bartonella infection.
Culture on selective media for isolation of Salmonella, Yersinia pestis, and other cultivable bacteria.
Microscopic examination of stained smears for parasites like Giardia and Cryptosporidium.
Immunofluorescence assays that reveal intracellular pathogens, including Rickettsia spp.

Sample acquisition must follow strict biosafety protocols. Preferred specimens are:

Fresh feces for gastrointestinal parasites and bacterial culture.
Blood collected with anticoagulant for serology, PCR, and culture.
Tissue biopsies (lung, liver, spleen) when systemic infection is suspected.
Urine for detection of Leptospira by PCR or microscopic agglutination test.

Laboratory results should be interpreted alongside epidemiological data, such as rodent population density and environmental conditions, to guide targeted interventions. Positive identification of a pathogen triggers specific therapeutic regimens—antibiotics for bacterial infections, antiviral agents for hantavirus, and antiparasitic drugs for protozoal diseases—and informs preventive actions, including rodent control, habitat modification, and vaccination of at‑risk populations.

Specific Disease Treatments

Antiviral Therapies («HPS», «LCMV»)

Antiviral strategies for rodent‑borne infections focus on two clinically relevant agents: hantavirus‑induced pulmonary syndrome (HPS) and lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV). Both viruses originate from wild and commensal mice, posing a risk to humans through aerosolized excreta.

For HPS, ribavirin has demonstrated modest efficacy when administered early in the disease course; intravenous dosing of 13 mg/kg every 6 hours for four days, followed by oral continuation, reduces viral replication and improves survival in severe cases. Experimental agents such as favipiravir and monoclonal antibodies targeting the viral glycoprotein are under investigation, showing promise in animal models and early‑phase clinical trials. No licensed vaccine exists, so post‑exposure prophylaxis relies on prompt ribavirin initiation and strict isolation of affected individuals.

LCMV treatment remains limited. Ribavirin provides limited benefit and is not universally recommended. Research into nucleoside analogues (e.g., remdesivir) and RNA interference approaches is ongoing, with in vitro data indicating suppression of viral RNA synthesis. Prevention emphasizes rodent control, personal protective equipment during handling of potentially contaminated materials, and serological screening of laboratory colonies to eliminate infected breeding stocks.

Key antiviral measures:

Early ribavirin administration for suspected HPS (intravenous loading, then oral maintenance).
Enrollment in clinical trials evaluating favipiravir, monoclonal antibodies, or novel nucleoside analogues for HPS.
Monitoring of LCMV‑positive rodents; immediate removal and decontamination of affected cages.
Participation in experimental studies of remdesivir or RNA‑targeted therapies for LCMV.
Routine use of PPE, HEPA filtration, and vaccination of at‑risk personnel when candidate vaccines become available.

Effective management combines rapid diagnostic confirmation, targeted antiviral therapy, and rigorous environmental controls to minimize transmission from mouse reservoirs.

Antibiotic Therapies («Salmonellosis», «Leptospirosis», «Rat-Bite Fever»)

Mice can transmit several bacterial infections that require prompt antimicrobial management. Three common conditions—salmonellosis, leptospirosis, and rat‑bite fever—respond to specific antibiotic regimens.

Salmonellosis – first‑line treatment with fluoroquinolones (e.g., ciprofloxacin) or third‑generation cephalosporins (e.g., ceftriaxone). Alternatives include azithromycin for patients with contraindications to fluoroquinolones.
Leptospirosis – doxycycline administered for a 7‑day course is standard for mild cases; severe disease warrants intravenous penicillin G or ceftriaxone for 10–14 days.
Rat‑Bite Fever – doxycycline or azithromycin for 7–10 days effectively clears infection; in pregnant patients, amoxicillin is preferred.

Therapeutic success depends on early diagnosis, appropriate drug selection based on susceptibility patterns, and adherence to the full prescribed course. Monitoring renal and hepatic function during treatment is advisable, especially when using nephrotoxic or hepatotoxic agents.

Supportive Care

Supportive care addresses the physiological disturbances caused by rodent‑borne infections while specific antimicrobial or antiviral therapies take effect. Prompt fluid replacement corrects dehydration from fever, vomiting, or diarrhea; isotonic crystalloids are preferred, with electrolyte monitoring to avoid imbalances. Nutritional support, either oral or enteral, sustains immune function and prevents catabolism during prolonged illness.

Pain and fever management reduces metabolic demand and improves comfort. Non‑steroidal anti‑inflammatory drugs or acetaminophen can be administered according to standard dosing guidelines, while avoiding agents that interfere with renal clearance in patients with hantavirus pulmonary syndrome. Antipyretics should be used judiciously when high temperatures threaten organ perfusion.

Respiratory assistance becomes critical in severe pulmonary involvement. Supplemental oxygen, high‑flow nasal cannula, or mechanical ventilation should be initiated based on arterial blood‑gas analysis and oxygen saturation trends. Chest physiotherapy and incentive spirometry help maintain lung expansion in patients recovering from pneumonia caused by Streptococcus spp. or Yersinia pestis.

Wound care prevents secondary bacterial infection after rodent bites or scratches. Clean the site with sterile saline, apply an appropriate antiseptic, and cover with a breathable dressing. Tetanus prophylaxis must be evaluated according to immunization history.

Monitoring protocols include:

Vital signs every 4 hours, with attention to temperature spikes, tachypnea, and hypotension.
Laboratory panels (complete blood count, renal and hepatic panels, coagulation profile) at admission and every 24 hours to track disease progression.
Urine output measurement to assess renal perfusion, targeting >0.5 mL/kg/h.

Psychological support reduces stress‑related immunosuppression. Provide clear information about disease course, address anxiety, and involve mental‑health professionals when needed.

When supportive measures are applied consistently, they mitigate complications, stabilize patients, and create a therapeutic window for definitive antimicrobial or antiviral regimens.

Post-Exposure Prophylaxis

Post‑exposure prophylaxis (PEP) is the immediate medical intervention administered after confirmed or suspected contact with pathogens carried by mice. Its purpose is to halt disease progression before clinical symptoms appear.

Effective PEP relies on prompt risk assessment, typically within 24 hours of exposure, and on selecting an antimicrobial or antiviral agent proven to act against the identified organism. Administration routes, dosage, and duration follow established guidelines for each infection.

Hantavirus pulmonary syndrome – no specific antiviral; PEP consists of supportive care, early hospitalization, and avoidance of further exposure. Ribavirin may be considered in experimental protocols, but evidence is limited.
Leptospirosis – doxycycline 100 mg orally once daily for 7 days, or a single dose of 200 mg for low‑risk contacts; alternatively, azithromycin 500 mg daily for 3 days.
Lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV) – ribavirin 400 mg orally twice daily for 10 days, initiated within 48 hours of exposure; monitor liver enzymes.
Salmonellosis – ciprofloxacin 500 mg orally twice daily for 5 days for high‑risk individuals (immunocompromised, elderly); otherwise, observation without antibiotics.
Plague (Yersinia pestis) – streptomycin 1 g intramuscularly daily for 7 days, or ciprofloxacin 500 mg orally twice daily for 10 days; begin treatment immediately after a bite or aerosol exposure.

Follow‑up includes serologic testing at baseline and 2–4 weeks post‑exposure, clinical observation for fever or respiratory distress, and documentation of adverse drug reactions. If symptoms develop despite prophylaxis, transition to full therapeutic regimens is mandatory.

Timely, disease‑specific PEP reduces morbidity and mortality associated with rodent‑transmitted infections.