Mouse and rat sounds: what they reveal about rodent presence

The Auditory Landscape of Rodents

The Science of Rodent Bioacoustics

What Are Rodent Sounds?

Rodent vocalizations comprise a range of audible and ultrasonic signals produced by mice and rats for communication, territorial defense, and predator avoidance. These sounds differ in frequency, duration, and context, allowing researchers and pest‑control professionals to infer the presence and activity level of rodent populations.

Typical categories include:

Squeaks and chirps (2–20 kHz): emitted during social interaction, juvenile distress, or when a mouse is captured.
Ultrasonic squeals (20–100 kHz): produced by rats during aggressive encounters or mating rituals; humans cannot hear them without specialized equipment.
Foot‑stamp vocalizations (1–5 kHz): low‑frequency clicks generated by rapid footfalls, often indicating movement through confined spaces.
Alarm calls (4–12 kHz): sharp, brief sounds triggered by predator detection, prompting immediate retreat or group alertness.

Analysis of these signals reveals occupancy patterns. Continuous low‑frequency foot‑stamp activity suggests established burrows, while intermittent high‑frequency squeals point to transient foraging. Ultrasonic monitoring devices capture the full spectrum, enabling non‑invasive surveys that distinguish between species and behavioral states.

Interpretation relies on correlating sound type with environmental cues. For instance, a surge in ultrasonic mating calls during spring aligns with breeding cycles, whereas increased alarm calls at night may signal heightened predation pressure. Accurate identification of rodent sounds thus provides actionable data for habitat assessment, population monitoring, and targeted management interventions.

Why Rodents Vocalize

Rodents produce a wide range of vocalizations that serve specific biological functions. These sounds are generated by the larynx and can extend into ultrasonic frequencies beyond human hearing, allowing communication in dense habitats and reducing detection by predators.

Alarm signaling – High‑frequency squeaks alert conspecifics to immediate threats; rapid bursts increase group vigilance.
Territorial advertisement – Low‑frequency chirps convey occupancy of a burrow or foraging area, deterring intruders without physical confrontation.
Mating calls – Distinctive patterns, often with rhythmic modulation, attract potential partners and synchronize reproductive timing.
Social cohesion – Soft, repetitive vocalizations maintain group cohesion during movement through complex tunnels, reinforcing hierarchical relationships.
Stress expression – Prolonged, irregular vocal output correlates with elevated corticosterone levels, indicating physiological distress.

The acoustic structure of each call type encodes information about the emitter’s size, health, and emotional state. Researchers analyze frequency range, amplitude, and temporal pattern to infer the presence and activity level of rodent populations in a given area. Detection of ultrasonic emissions using specialized microphones provides a non‑invasive method for monitoring hidden colonies, while audible squeaks can signal recent intrusion or predator encounters.

Understanding why rodents vocalize enhances interpretation of field recordings and improves pest‑management strategies by linking specific sound signatures to behavioral contexts.

Identifying Rodent Species by Sound

Mouse Vocalizations

High-Frequency Squeaks

High‑frequency squeaks, typically ranging from 20 kHz to 80 kHz, serve as primary communication channels for both mice and rats. These ultrasonic emissions convey alarm, territorial boundaries, and social status. Detection equipment tuned to this spectrum reliably indicates rodent activity even when visual signs are absent.

Key attributes of high‑frequency squeaks:

Frequency bands: Mice concentrate around 40–60 kHz; rats emit slightly lower tones, often 20–35 kHz.
Temporal patterns: Short bursts (10–100 ms) signal immediate threat; longer sequences (several seconds) accompany mating rituals.
Amplitude: Peak sound pressure levels rarely exceed 70 dB SPL, ensuring stealth while remaining detectable by specialized microphones.

Field surveys employing ultrasonic bat detectors or dedicated rodent recorders consistently correlate squeak presence with population density estimates. Continuous monitoring yields temporal activity profiles, revealing peak foraging periods and nocturnal movement corridors. Data integration with environmental variables—temperature, humidity, and substrate composition—refines predictive models of infestation spread.

Practical implications:

Early‑detection systems exploit the constant background of high‑frequency squeaks to trigger automated alerts, reducing response latency.
Acoustic masking, achieved through broadband noise generators, disrupts communication networks, decreasing breeding success and territorial establishment.

Understanding the spectral and behavioral signatures of these ultrasonic calls enhances both surveillance accuracy and control strategies for rodent management.

Ultrasonic Calls and Communication

Ultrasonic vocalizations are the primary acoustic channel through which mice and rats exchange information beyond the range of human hearing. Frequencies typically span 20–100 kHz, with peak energy often clustered between 40 and 70 kHz for mice and 30–50 kHz for rats. These emissions convey physiological state, social rank, and environmental threats, allowing individuals to coordinate breeding, establish territories, and issue alarm signals without attracting predators.

Detection of ultrasonic calls relies on specialized microphones and recording systems that convert high‑frequency pressure waves into analyzable waveforms. Spectrographic analysis reveals distinct patterns:

Short, broadband bursts associated with distress or predator detection.
Repetitive, harmonic sequences linked to courtship and mating.
Low‑amplitude, rhythmic chirps used in male‑male competition and dominance displays.

Temporal features such as call duration, inter‑call interval, and modulation depth differentiate species and behavioral contexts. Consistent presence of distress bursts in a confined area indicates recent predator encounters or lethal stressors, while sustained courtship sequences suggest breeding activity and potential population growth.

Field deployment of ultrasonic detectors provides continuous, non‑invasive monitoring of rodent activity. Automated algorithms classify call types in real time, generating occupancy maps that correlate acoustic density with habitat features. Integration of these data into pest‑management protocols enables early intervention, reducing the need for extensive trapping or chemical control.

In summary, ultrasonic communication offers a reliable, species‑specific indicator of rodent presence. Precise measurement of call characteristics supports accurate assessment of population dynamics, behavioral states, and environmental pressures, facilitating informed decision‑making in research and management contexts.

Rat Vocalizations

Distinctive Squeals and Chirps

Rodent vocalizations, especially the high‑frequency squeals and chirps produced by mice and rats, serve as reliable indicators of their presence and behavior. These sounds arise from specialized laryngeal structures and are transmitted efficiently through dense vegetation and building materials, allowing detection even when visual confirmation is impossible.

Squeals typically occupy the 5–15 kHz range and appear in three distinct contexts:

Distress: abrupt, broadband bursts emitted when an individual is captured or threatened; amplitude increases sharply with stress level.
Aggression: repetitive, lower‑frequency squeaks exchanged during territorial disputes; pattern frequency rises with the intensity of the encounter.
Pain: short, high‑intensity pulses triggered by injury; duration remains under 100 ms.

Chirps differ in spectral and temporal characteristics. They are narrow‑band, often exceeding 20 kHz, and function primarily as social signals:

Juvenile communication: rhythmic, low‑amplitude chirps used to solicit maternal care; intervals shorten as pups mature.
Courtship: sustained, modulated chirps emitted by males during mating displays; frequency modulation conveys fitness cues.
Exploratory signaling: brief, high‑frequency chirps produced while navigating novel environments; frequency peaks correlate with heightened arousal.

These acoustic signatures enable precise monitoring of rodent activity. Passive acoustic sensors, calibrated to the identified frequency bands, can differentiate species and behavioral states, facilitating early detection of infestations, assessment of population dynamics, and evaluation of control measures. By correlating sound patterns with environmental variables, researchers and pest managers obtain actionable data without invasive trapping.

Subsonic Vibrations and Their Role

Subsonic vibrations—frequencies below the typical audible range for humans—constitute a significant component of rodent acoustic communication. Mice and rats generate these low‑frequency signals through foot‑stomps, tail‑slaps, and vocalizations that propagate through substrates rather than air. Because the energy of subsonic waves travels efficiently through soil, wood, and concrete, they can be detected at distances where airborne sounds attenuate rapidly.

Research indicates that subsonic cues serve several functions:

Territorial marking: Ground‑borne pulses establish presence without exposing the emitter to predators that rely on visual detection.
Alert signaling: Sudden low‑frequency bursts accompany aggressive encounters, prompting conspecifics to adopt defensive postures.
Navigation aid: Vibrations produced during locomotion provide proprioceptive feedback, enabling fine‑scale movement in confined burrows.

Detection technologies exploit these properties. Accelerometers and piezoelectric sensors attached to building structures capture vibration signatures, allowing early identification of rodent activity. Signal‑processing algorithms differentiate rodent patterns from background noise by analyzing amplitude envelopes, temporal spacing, and spectral peaks below 20 Hz.

Understanding subsonic vibration dynamics enhances pest‑monitoring strategies. By integrating ground‑borne acoustic data with traditional auditory surveys, practitioners obtain a more comprehensive picture of infestation levels, reducing reliance on visual inspections alone.

Common Sounds Indicating Presence

Scratching and Gnawing Noises

Sounds of Movement

Movement-generated sounds are among the most reliable acoustic indicators of rodent activity. When a mouse or rat traverses a surface, the resulting footfall pattern produces a distinctive series of high‑frequency clicks and low‑frequency thuds. The tempo, amplitude, and spectral composition of these noises vary with species, body size, and substrate type, allowing precise identification of the animal responsible.

Typical movement sounds include:

Rapid footpad taps on hard floors, creating a series of sharp, broadband clicks spaced 0.05–0.15 s apart.
Scurrying across loose material, generating rustling noises with dominant frequencies between 2–5 kHz.
Climbing on vertical structures, producing intermittent scrapes and clanks as claws engage with wood or metal.
Nest‑material displacement, yielding muffled thumps and soft shuffling sounds in the 500 Hz–2 kHz range.

Acoustic monitoring systems capture these signals with omnidirectional microphones placed near potential pathways. Spectral analysis isolates characteristic frequency bands, while temporal patterns reveal activity cycles. Automated classifiers compare recordings against reference libraries to confirm species presence and estimate population density.

Interpretation of movement sounds informs pest‑management decisions. Persistent high‑frequency footpad clicks indicate active foraging corridors, whereas sporadic low‑frequency thuds suggest occasional intrusion. By correlating sound intensity with environmental variables, investigators can predict infestation hotspots and target interventions with minimal disturbance.

Sounds of Feeding

Feeding noises provide reliable evidence of rodent activity. When mice or rats gnaw, crush, or manipulate food, they generate distinct acoustic signatures that differ from locomotion or vocalizations. The sounds typically include rapid, high‑frequency chattering from incisors, intermittent crunches as hard items are broken, and low‑frequency rustling when soft matter is handled.

Key acoustic features of feeding:

Incisor chatter: series of short, sharp clicks lasting 0.02–0.05 seconds, frequency range 8–12 kHz.
Crunching bursts: irregular bursts with dominant energy around 4–6 kHz, associated with hard seeds or grains.
Rustle hiss: continuous low‑frequency component (1–3 kHz) produced by movement of soft food within the oral cavity.

Detection equipment calibrated to these frequency bands can differentiate feeding activity from other rodent sounds. Spectral analysis shows that feeding noises exhibit higher amplitude and more consistent temporal patterns than squeaks or footfalls, enabling automated monitoring systems to flag potential infestations with reduced false‑positive rates.

Interpretation of feeding acoustics informs pest‑management decisions. Persistent incisor chatter indicates active foraging, suggesting accessible food sources and a growing population. Intermittent crunching may reflect occasional scavenging, while a lack of feeding sounds despite other rodent noises can imply limited food availability or a shift to non‑food behaviors. Monitoring these patterns allows targeted interventions, such as eliminating attractants or deploying traps in zones with confirmed feeding activity.

Rustling and Scurrying Sounds

Sounds in Walls and Ceilings

Rodent activity within building structures produces distinct acoustic signatures that can be identified through careful listening. High‑pitched squeaks, rapid foot‑stamp sequences, and low‑frequency thuds correspond to specific behaviors and species, allowing occupants to infer the presence and movement patterns of mice or rats behind walls and ceilings.

Typical sounds include:

Sharp, repetitive chirps – produced by mice during territorial displays; frequency range 8–12 kHz, duration 0.1–0.3 s.
Series of soft pattering – footfalls of small rodents moving along insulation or joists; pulse rate 4–6 Hz.
Deep, resonant thumps – associated with larger rats navigating structural cavities; dominant frequencies 200–500 Hz, often audible through floorboards.
Scratching or gnawing – intermittent, irregular bursts; higher amplitude when rodents chew on wooden beams or drywall.

Location clues derive from sound propagation characteristics. Echoes that intensify near ceiling vents suggest activity in attic spaces, while muffled, reverberating noises near baseboards indicate ground‑level movement within wall cavities. Time of occurrence also assists identification: mice tend to vocalize during daylight hours, whereas rats are more active at night, producing louder thuds after sunset.

Professional detection relies on calibrated acoustic equipment that isolates frequencies above ambient background. Spectral analysis distinguishes rodent calls from mechanical noises, enabling targeted inspection and remediation without unnecessary demolition. Consistent monitoring of these auditory indicators provides early detection, reducing the risk of extensive infestation and structural damage.

Sounds in Attics and Basements

Rodent activity in attics and basements produces distinct acoustic signatures that can be used to confirm infestation. Mice generate high‑pitched squeaks, rapid foot‑stomps, and soft scratching on insulation or wooden joists. Rats produce deeper chattering, louder thumping, and vigorous gnawing noises on pipes, ductwork, or concrete surfaces.

The timing of sounds provides clues about species and population size. Mice are most vocal during early night hours, emitting short bursts of squeaking that repeat every few minutes. Rats tend to be active later in the night, delivering sustained chattering that lasts for longer intervals and may be accompanied by louder thuds as they move across structural beams.

Location-specific characteristics help differentiate between attic and basement activity. In attics, sounds often echo off roof joists, creating reverberated squeaks or metallic clangs when rodents disturb ventilation fans. In basements, water‑filled pipes amplify gnawing clicks, while concrete floors transmit deep thumps that travel through walls.

Practical steps for homeowners:

Record noises with a smartphone or dedicated recorder to capture frequency and duration.
Compare recordings to known rodent sound profiles (high‑pitched squeak vs. low chattering).
Inspect identified areas for droppings, gnaw marks, and nesting material.
Engage pest‑control professionals if sound evidence confirms multiple individuals or persistent activity.

Interpreting the Meaning of Rodent Sounds

Activity Levels and Times

Nocturnal Behavior Patterns

Rodent vocalizations recorded during night hours provide reliable indicators of active populations. Mice and rats emit distinct acoustic signatures that correspond to specific nocturnal activities such as foraging, territorial disputes, and predator avoidance. By correlating sound frequency, duration, and timing with known behavioral cycles, researchers can infer the spatial and temporal distribution of these animals without visual confirmation.

Key nocturnal sound patterns include:

High‑frequency squeaks (10–30 kHz): Predominantly produced by mice during exploratory foraging after dusk; peak occurrence between 20:00 and 23:00.
Low‑frequency chirps (2–8 kHz): Emitted by rats when establishing dominance hierarchies; most frequent during the early night (19:00–22:00) and again before sunrise.
Ultrasonic alarm calls (>30 kHz): Triggered by sudden disturbances; appear in short bursts lasting 0.2–0.5 seconds, often preceding a rapid retreat to burrows.
Continuous rustling noises: Result from movement within nesting chambers; indicate prolonged activity during the middle of the night (02:00–04:00).

Temporal analysis of these sounds reveals that mouse activity declines sharply after the first hour of darkness, while rat presence remains elevated throughout the entire nocturnal period. Overlap of ultrasonic alarm calls with low‑frequency chirps typically signals interspecific encounters, suggesting shared foraging zones.

Monitoring equipment calibrated to capture the full ultrasonic spectrum can detect these patterns in real time. Automated classification algorithms, trained on labeled recordings, distinguish between species and behavioral contexts with accuracy rates exceeding 90 %. Consequently, acoustic surveillance becomes a non‑invasive method for mapping rodent presence and predicting peak activity windows for pest management interventions.

Increased Sound Activity as an Indicator

Increased acoustic output provides a reliable metric for confirming the presence of small mammals such as mice and rats. Elevated frequency of squeaks, chirps, and foot‑step noises correlates with population density, breeding cycles, and foraging activity. Researchers have documented that:

Persistent high‑pitched vocalizations appear during mating periods, indicating a surge in reproductive groups.
Repetitive scurrying sounds intensify when food sources are abundant, reflecting heightened foraging effort.
Sudden spikes in ultrasonic emissions often precede nocturnal movement, signaling imminent activity in concealed areas.

Field recordings demonstrate that sound intensity rises proportionally with the number of individuals sharing a habitat. Acoustic monitoring equipment calibrated to detect ultrasonic ranges captures these variations, allowing early detection before visual signs emerge. Data analysis reveals that a threshold increase of 15 dB above baseline levels reliably predicts active infestation within 48 hours.

Implementing continuous sound surveillance reduces response time for pest control measures. By quantifying sound escalation, operators can prioritize inspection sites, allocate resources efficiently, and verify the effectiveness of mitigation strategies through post‑treatment acoustic trends.

Population Size and Distribution

Sound Density and Infestation Levels

The frequency and intensity of rodent vocalizations provide a measurable indicator of population pressure within a structure. Higher sound density—defined as the number of audible chirps, squeaks, or scurrying noises per unit time—correlates directly with increased infestation levels. Monitoring devices capture acoustic signatures and calculate sound pressure levels (SPL) alongside event counts, enabling quantitative assessment.

Key relationships between acoustic metrics and rodent activity:

Event rate: > 30 distinct sounds per minute typically signifies moderate to heavy presence.
SPL threshold: Average levels exceeding 45 dB(A) within hidden cavities suggest breeding colonies.
Temporal pattern: Persistent nighttime peaks indicate established foraging routes; sporadic daytime sounds often reflect transient individuals.

Interpretation of these metrics guides intervention strategies. When sound density surpasses established thresholds, immediate remediation—such as sealing entry points, deploying bait stations, and conducting thorough inspections—becomes warranted. Conversely, sub‑threshold readings may justify continued surveillance rather than full‑scale extermination.

Accurate sound‑based evaluation requires calibrated microphones, noise‑filtering algorithms to exclude ambient disturbances, and baseline recordings for comparison. Consistent data collection over several weeks improves reliability, reducing false positives caused by occasional visitor rodents or external wildlife.

Locating Rodent Nests

Auditory cues from mice and rats provide reliable indicators of nest locations. By analyzing vocalizations, researchers can pinpoint areas of active habitation without visual inspection.

Key acoustic characteristics linked to nesting sites include:

High‑frequency squeaks emitted during close‑quarter social interactions, typically heard near burrow entrances.
Low‑frequency chattering that intensifies during nighttime foraging trips, often originating from pathways leading to nests.
Repetitive gnawing or scratching sounds that occur when rodents reinforce nest structures; these noises are strongest within the nesting chamber.

Effective detection strategies:

Deploy passive acoustic recorders at regular intervals (e.g., every 5 m) along walls, baseboards, and ceilings.
Use spectrogram analysis to isolate frequency bands associated with social calls (5–12 kHz) and structural noises (2–4 kHz).
Apply triangulation algorithms to intersect the strongest signal sources, revealing the most probable nest coordinates.
Validate acoustic findings with targeted visual inspections or thermal imaging to confirm nest presence.

Continuous monitoring captures temporal patterns, allowing practitioners to distinguish permanent nests from temporary shelters based on the consistency and volume of recorded sounds. This approach minimizes invasive procedures while delivering precise location data for effective rodent management.

Advanced Detection Techniques

Acoustic Monitoring Devices

How Ultrasonic Detectors Work

Ultrasonic detectors capture high‑frequency vocalizations emitted by mice and rats, converting them into data that reveal rodent activity. The devices operate on three core stages: transduction, signal conditioning, and analysis.

The transducer, typically a piezoelectric or condenser microphone, responds to pressure variations above 20 kHz. Its diaphragm vibrates in proportion to sound pressure, generating an electrical voltage that mirrors the ultrasonic waveform.

Signal conditioning amplifies the weak voltage, applies band‑pass filtering to isolate frequencies of interest (often 20–80 kHz for common rodent calls), and reduces ambient noise. Amplifiers with low noise figures preserve signal integrity, while digital converters sample the filtered waveform at rates exceeding twice the highest target frequency, ensuring accurate reconstruction.

Analysis software processes the digitized signal. Algorithms perform fast Fourier transforms to extract spectral peaks, measure call duration, and classify vocalizations by species‑specific patterns. Results can be displayed as audible playback, spectrograms, or statistical reports indicating presence, activity level, and temporal distribution.

Key components of an ultrasonic detector:

Piezoelectric or condenser microphone tuned for >20 kHz
Low‑noise preamplifier with adjustable gain
Band‑pass filter matching rodent vocal range
High‑speed analog‑to‑digital converter (≥200 kS/s)
Real‑time signal‑processing firmware or computer software

Effective deployment requires placement near potential entry points, continuous power supply, and periodic calibration to maintain sensitivity. When integrated into pest‑management programs, ultrasonic detection provides objective evidence of rodent occupancy, supporting timely intervention.

Analyzing Recorded Sound Data

Analyzing recorded acoustic data provides a reliable method for detecting the presence of small mammals such as mice and rats. High‑frequency recordings capture the distinctive squeaks, chirps, and scurrying noises that each species produces during foraging, social interaction, and territorial displays. By converting these waveforms into spectrograms, researchers can isolate frequency bands, duration patterns, and temporal sequences that differentiate one rodent from another.

The analytical workflow typically includes:

Pre‑processing: Apply noise reduction filters to remove background interference from HVAC systems, traffic, or human activity.
Segmentation: Divide the continuous audio stream into candidate events using amplitude thresholds and temporal windows.
Feature extraction: Compute spectral centroid, bandwidth, modulation rate, and harmonic‑to‑noise ratio for each segment.
Classification: Train supervised machine‑learning models (e.g., random forest, convolutional neural network) on labeled datasets to assign species identity.
Validation: Cross‑validate predictions with visual sightings or trap data to assess accuracy and adjust model parameters.

Statistical analysis of the extracted features reveals patterns linked to specific behavioral states. For instance, rapid, high‑pitch chirps often correspond to juvenile distress calls, while low‑frequency squeaks indicate aggressive encounters. Temporal clustering of these calls can signal peak activity periods, informing pest‑management schedules.

Integrating acoustic monitoring with geographic information systems enables mapping of infestation hotspots. Spatial interpolation of detection probabilities highlights zones where rodent activity exceeds predefined thresholds, guiding targeted interventions. Continuous recording and automated analysis reduce the need for invasive trapping, offering a scalable solution for facilities ranging from residential complexes to agricultural warehouses.

Professional Pest Control Audits

Expert Identification of Sounds

Experts in bioacoustics distinguish mouse and rat vocalizations by analyzing frequency, temporal structure, and harmonic content. Spectral analysis reveals that mice emit ultrasonic squeaks ranging from 30 to 110 kHz, while rats produce broadband calls between 4 and 20 kHz. Precise measurement of these parameters enables reliable species identification even when visual confirmation is impossible.

Key acoustic markers include:

Peak frequency: mouse ultrasonic bursts peak near 70 kHz; rat distress calls center around 7 kHz.
Duration: mouse calls last 10–30 ms; rat vocalizations extend to 200 ms.
Modulation pattern: mouse chirps show rapid frequency sweeps; rat calls display slower, sinusoidal modulation.

Professional identification relies on calibrated microphones, high‑resolution spectrogram software, and reference libraries of validated recordings. Cross‑validation with field observations confirms that detected sound patterns correspond to active rodent presence, population density, and behavioral state.

Interpretation of acoustic data informs pest‑management decisions. Elevated counts of mouse ultrasonic bursts indicate breeding colonies, whereas increased rat distress calls suggest territorial conflicts or predator presence. By linking specific sound signatures to ecological conditions, experts provide actionable intelligence for control strategies.

Utilizing Sound for Eradication Strategies

Rodent vocalizations provide reliable indicators of occupancy, activity patterns, and species composition within infested structures. Acoustic sensors capture squeaks, chirps, and ultrasonic clicks, enabling early detection before visual confirmation becomes possible. Data from continuous recordings allow precise mapping of hot spots, which guides targeted placement of control measures and reduces unnecessary pesticide application.

Sound‑based eradication strategies exploit two complementary mechanisms:

Playback deterrence: broadcasting species‑specific alarm calls or predator‑like ultrasonic tones triggers avoidance behavior, driving rodents away from treated zones.
Acoustic disruption: emitting irregular, high‑frequency pulses interferes with communication channels, impairing mating calls and territorial signaling, leading to reduced breeding success and colony fragmentation.
Integrated monitoring‑response loops: real‑time analysis of recorded calls triggers automated activation of deterrent emitters, creating a closed system that adapts to fluctuating activity levels.

Effectiveness hinges on calibrated frequency ranges, temporal patterns matching natural rodent vocalizations, and strategic emitter placement near identified activity cores. Field trials demonstrate measurable declines in capture rates and nesting activity when acoustic deterrents are combined with conventional traps, confirming sound as a viable component of integrated pest‑management programs.